UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


A  corner  in  the  orchard.      A  Lombard  plum  tree.      Is  it  carrying  too  much  fruit  ? 
What  should  be  done  ?     (See  page  106. ) 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE 


BY 

CHARLES   C.  JAMES,    M.  A. 

DKl'UTY    MINISTER    OF    AGRICULTURE    FOR    ONTARIO 

FORMERLY   PROFESSOR  OF  CHEMISTRY  AT  THE 
ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


AMERICAN    EDITION 

EDITED  BY   JOHN  CRAIG 

PROFESSOR    OF    HORTICULTURE 
IN   THE   IOWA    AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 


NEW  YORK 

D.   APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 
1899 


COPYRIGHT,  1899, 
BY  D.  APPLETON   AND  COMPANY. 


PREFACE. 

The  purpose  of  ihis  book  is  to  aid  the  reader  and  student 
in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  science  of  agriculture  as  dis- 
finct  from  the  art  of  agriculture  ;  that  is,  a  knowledge  of  the 
"  why,"  rather  than  a  knowledge  of  the  "  how."  The  science 
of  agriculture  may  be  said  to  consist  of  a  mingling  of  chemistry, 
geology,  botany,  entomology,  physiology,  bacteriology,  and 
other  sciences,  in  as  far  as  they  have  a  bearing  upon  agri- 
culture. The  aim  has  been  to  include  but  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  these  various  sciences,  and  to  show  their  application 
to  the  art  of  agriculture.  In  a  field  so  wide,  and  with  so 
limited  a  space  at  the  author's  disposal,  this  work  claims  to 
deal  only  with  the  simple  first  principles  of  agricultural  science. 
It  is  hoped,  however,  that  the  beginning  here  made  will  lead 
to  a  further  study  of  what  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
most  profitable  sciences — one  that  is  at  the  present  time 
making  most  wonderful  advance. 

From  his  expeiience  of  several  years  teaching  at  the  Ontario 
Agricultural  College  the  author  believes  that  the  rational 
teaching  of  agriculture  in  Public  and  High  Schools  is  not  only 
possible,  but  would  be  exceedingly  profitable.  An  intelligent 
understanding  of  the  science  underlying  the  art  of  agriculture 
will  add  much  interest  to  what  is  otherwise  hard  work,  and,  as 
a  natural  consequence,  the  pleasure  of  such  work  may  be 

,'365440 


IV  PREFACE. 

greatly  increased..  The  agriculturists  of  this  country  in  the 
future  will  work  at  a  serious  disadvantage  if  they  do  not  have 
some  knowledge  of  the  very  interesting  science  that  underlies 
their  work.  The  residents  of  our  towns  and  cities  also  will 
find  that  some  knowledge  of  the  science  of  agriculture  may  be 
of  use  to  them,  and  may  increase  the  respect  and  consideration 
for  the  calling  that  contributes  so  largely  to  the  general  wealth 
and  welfare  of  this  country. 

To  the  many  who  have  offered  help  and  advice  and  to  all 
who  have  in  any  way  contributed  to  this  work,  sincere  thanks 
are  offered. 

The  First  Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  Dr.  James  Mills  and 
Prof.  Shaw  will  be  found  useful  for  reference,  as  some  of  the 
subjects  herein  dealt  with  are  enlarged  upon  in  that  work. 

• 

C.  C.  JAMES. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 
Toronto,  August  ist,  1898. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. — THE   PLANT. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER     i. — The  Seed i 

ii.— The  Young  Plant       ....  6 

"  in.— The  Plant  and  Water     .  .12 

iv.— The  Plant  and  the  Soil       .         .  16 

v. — The  Plant  and  the  Air            ...  20 

vi. — Structure  and  Growth  of  the  Plant      .  24 

vn. — Naming  and  Classification  of  Plants       .  29 

PART  II.— THE  SOIL. 

CHAP-      vin. — Nature  and  Origin  of  the  Soil         .         .       31 
"  ix. — Tilling  and  Draining  the  Soil      .         .  37 

'•  x. — Improving  the  Soil         ....       42 

PART  III. — THE  CROPS  OF  THE  FIELD. 

CHAP.        xi. — The  Grasses 48 

"           xn. — The  Grain  Crops  or  Cereals        .         .  52 

XIIL — The  Leguminous  Plants          .         .  -57 

"          xiv. — Root  Crops  and  Tubers      ...  62 

"            xv. — Various  other  Crops       .         .         .  -67 

xvi. — Weeds        ....  71 

xvii.  —  Insects  of  the  Field       .  74 

"        xvin. — The  Diseases  of  Plants       .  88 

"          xix. — Rotation  of  Crops          .  .       93 


vi  CONTENTS. 

PART  IV. — THE  GARDEN,  ORCHARD  AND  VINEYARD. 

PACK 

CHAP.       xx. — The  Garden       .         .  .         .         .           97 

"          xxi. — The  Apple  Orchard       .  .         .         .     103 

xxn. — Other  Orchard  Trees  .          107 

"        xxiii.  — Insects  of  the  Orchard  .         .         .     no 

"        xxiv. — Diseases  of  the  Orchard  .         .         .          116 

"         xxv. — The  Vineyard         .         .  .         .         .118 

PART  V. — LIVE  STOCK  AND  DAIRYING. 

CHAP.    xxvi. — Horses       ...... 

"  xxvn. — Cattle            ...... 

"  xxvin. — Sheep        ...... 

"  xxix. — Swine             .                   .... 

"  xxx. — Poultry 

"  xxxi. — Milk      ....... 

"  xxxii.— The  Products  of  Milk         .         .         .     « 

"  xxxin. — The  Structure  of  Animals 

"  xxxiv. — Foods  of  Animals 

"  xxxv. — Digestion  and  Uses  of  Foods 

PART  VI. — OTHER  SUBJECTS. 

CHAP,  xxxvi. — Bees  .         .         .         .         .         .         171 

"    xxxvu. — Birds  .         .         .         „         .         .176 

"  xxxvni. — Forestry     .         .         .         .         .         .          181 

"     xxxix. — Roads 187 

"  XL. — The  Rural  Home       .         .         .         .         193 

APPENDIX. 

List  of  Trees  .         .         .         ,         .         .         .         196 

List  of  Weeds 198 

Spraying  Mixtures     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         200 


"Agriculture  is  the  oldest  of  the  arts  and  the  most  recent 
of  the  sciences." 

"  Perfect  agriculture  is  the  true  foundation  of  trade  and 
industry — it  is  the  foundation  of  the  riches  of  States." 


PART  I. 

CHAPTER  I. 


THE  SEED. 

THE  FORMING  OF  SEED. — We  scatter  some  oat-grains  over 
the  earth  and  then  lightly  cover  them  with  the  fine  surface 
soiL  The  spring  rain  falls,  and  the  air  grows  warmer.  In 
a  few  days  the  green  blades  of  the  oat  plants  appear  through 
the  soil  all  over  the  field.  If  we  pull  up  some  of  these 
green  shoots  we  find  that  each  one  grows  from  a  single 
seed,  and  each  plant  has  a  bunch  of  small  hairy  roots. 
If  we  look  closely  we  may  find  the  old  husk,  or  the  cover- 
ing, of  the  grain  that  we  planted,  but  nothing  more.  What 
was  once  a  seed  has  now  become  a  plant  with  roots  in 
the  soil  and  stalk  and  leaf  above  the  soil.  Perhaps  we  may 
find  some  seeds  that  were  buried  too  deeply  and  that  have 
not  sprouted.  On  through  the  summer  the  oat  plants  grow, 
tall  and  green  ;  soon  the  head  branches  out  and  blossoms  • 
then  the  grain  forms,  first  soft,  soon  becoming  harder,  and  the 
plants  lose  their  green  color  and  turn  brown  and  yellow.  We 
cut  down  the  plants  and  later  on  thresh  them  out,  separating 
the  grain  from  the  straw.  The  roots  or  stubble  left  behind 
in  the  soil  decay;  they  will  not  grow  again.  The  straw  also 
will  not  grow ;  it  is  fed  to  the  stock  or  used  as  litter.  But 
the  grain  we  may  feed  to  the  stock  or  we  may  use  it  again  for 
growing  another  crop  of  oats  next  year.  We  began  with  the 
seed  and  the  plant  has  given  us  seed  again,  just  like  the  seed 
with  which  we  started.  The  seed,  then,  is  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  the  oat  plant,  whose  aim  in  growing  appears  to  be 
to  form  seed  that  will  produce  other  plants  like  itself.  The 


2  AGRICULTURE. 

seed  appears  to  be  the  most  important  part  of  this  plant ;  its 
life  passes  on  through  the  seed.  We  therefore  begin  our 
study  of  plants  with  the  seed. 

Many  other  plants  of  the  field,  like  the  oat,  sprout,  grow, 
form  seed  and  die  in  one  season  (Annuals).  Some  others, 
such  as  carrots  and  turnips,  do  not  ibim  seed  unless  left  in 
the  ground  for  a  second  season  (Biennials).  Then  their  roots 
and  stalks  die.  There  are  others,  such  as  fruit  trees,  nut- 
bearing  trees,  grape  vines,  that  form  seed  year  by  year,  but  still 
keep  on  living  (Perennials). 

Make  a  list  of  the  plants  of  the  farm  and  garden  under  these  three 
classes  :  Annuals,  Biennials  and  Perennials. 

SHAPE  AND  SIZE  OF  SEEDS. — The  seeds  of  the  same  kind  of 
plants  are  very  much  alike  in  shape  and  size,  but  the  seeds 
of  oats,  wheat,  barley,  corn,  peas,  beans,  turnips,  pumpkins, 
apples,  red  clover,  and  timothy  all  differ.  So  do  the  seeds  of 
the  grasses  and  of  the  weeds.  Some  are  ball-shaped  like  peas, 
some  are  long  and  pointed  like  oats,  some  are  flat  like  pump- 
kins, some  are  three-sided  like  buckwheat  and  beech  nuts. 
And  there  are  many  other  forms ;  in  fact,  there  is  a  different 
form  for  every  different  kind  of  seed. 

One  seed  may  send  up  two  or  more  stalks,  but  one  stalk  never  grows 
from  more  than  one  reed.  Find  out  how  many  grains  of  wheat  there  are 
on  a  single  stalk ;  how  many  seeds  there  are  on  a  dandelion  head,  and 
how  many  grains  of  corn  will  be  grown  from  one  seed  of  corn. 

Get  a  number  of  small  glass  bottles  about  two  inches  long.  Collect  the 
seeds  of  grains,  of  grasses,  and  of  weeds.  In  the  summer  and  fall  gather 
these  seeds  from  the  growing  plants,  in  the  winter  get  them  from  the  bins. 
Put  these  separately  in  the  bottles,  write  the  name  of  each  kind  on  a  piece 
of  paper  and  fasten  it  on  the  bottle.  You  can  in  time  get  a  collection 
of  all  the  principal  seeds  that  are  to  be  found  growing  in  your  locality,  and 
you  can  then  study  them.  After  a  while  you  can  write  on  each  its  botani- 
cal name  also. 

THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SEED. —Wheat  and  oats  are  too  small 
for  us  to  take  apart  easily.  Let  us  take  a  large  seed  such  as  a 
hickory  nut.  First  the  rough  outer  husk  is  taken  off,  then  we 


THE   SEED. 


come  to  the  hard  shell.  If  we  crack  this  carefully  we  can  take 
out  "  the  meat "  in  one  piece.  We  see  that  it  is  made  up  of 
two  parts  joined  together  at  one  end.  Notice  at  which  end 
of  the  shell  the  two  parts  are  joined  together. 

Now  take  another  nut — an  almond. 
We  crack  it ;  the  meat  comes  out  in  one 
compact  piece.  '  We  place  this  in  water 
for  a  couple  of  minutes  and  then  we 
carefully  rub  off  the  coating.  We  find 
that  the  white  almond  will  separate  into  Fig. ,. -AH  Almond  showing 
two  parts  that  are  joined  together  at  one  ffi?  ftSTSftft 
end,  very  much  as  in  the  hickory  nut.  £  ^  ^u,±di£ 
We  find  also  that  there  is  a  tiny  tip  stem- 
between  these  two  parts.  The  nut  appears  to  be  made  up  of 
two  thick  leaves  joined  to  a  very  short  stem.  It  is  somewhat  like 
a  plant  with  a  short  stalk,  having  two  big  leaves,  but  no  roots. 


Fiz.  2.— An  Acorn  cut 
in  two. 


Fig.  3. — A  Horse-Chestnut 
cut  in  two  showing  seed 
leaves  and  tip. 


Fig.  5.- A 

Pumpkin- 
Seed. 


We  can  examine  the  seeds  of  the  acorn,  the  horse-chestnut, 
the  apple,  the  pea,  the  bean,  and  the  pumpkin,  and  we  find 
them  all  made  up  or  put  together  in  much  the  same  form.  If 
we  open  up  other  seeds,  however,  we  may  find  some  that  have 
only  one  seed-leaf,  and  some  that  have  more  than  two.  What 
do  you  find  in  the  maple  tree  seed  ? 

THE  SPROUTING  OF  THE  SEED. — When  a  seed  begins  to 
grow,  it  is  said  to  sprout.  Seeds  do  not  begin  to  grow  in  the 
ground  in  winter,  nor  will  they  sprout  in  summer  if  they  are 


4  AGRICULTURE. 

buried  too  deeply  in  the  soil.  We  can  easily  cause  seeds  to 
sprout,  and  we  can,  at  the  same  time,  find  out  just  when  they 
will  sprout.  If  we  place  some  wheat  grains  in  a  dry  dish  and 
keep  them  dry,  they  will  not  sprout  either  in  winter  or  sum- 
mer— it  makes  no  difference  whether  they  are  cold  or  warm, 
they  will  not  sprout  so  long  as  they  are  kept  dry.  We  there- 
fore conclude  that  seeds  require  water  or  moisture  in  order  to 
sprout.  If  this  were  not  so  we  would  have  the  grain  sprouting 
in  the  bins  and  granaries.  At  the  same  time  we  notice  how 
important  it  is  to  have  all  bins  and  granaries  quite  dry. 

Now  let  us  take  three  deep  dishes,  such  as  soup  plates.  We 
get  three  pieces  of  flannel  and  cut  them  so  that  when  once 
folded  each  piece  will  just  about  cover  the  bottom  of  the  dish. 
We  place  about  twenty  grains  of  wheat  in  each  between  the 
folded  flannel.  We  then  moisten  one  plate  and  set  it  away  in 
a  coyl  place,  and  we  keep  the  flannel  moist  all  the  time ;  we 
moisten  the  second  and  set  it  in  a  warm  place,  in  a  sunny 
window,  for  instance,  and  we  keep  it  moist ;  we  fill  up  the 
third  and  set  it  also  beside  it  in  the  warm  place,  and  we  keep 
the  plate  filled  with  water.  We  can  see  what  changes  take 
place  from  day  to  day  by  lifting  up  the  flannel.  The  grain 
kept  cool  does  not  sprout ;  the  grain  kept  covered  with  water 
so  that  the  air  does  not  reach  it  does  not  sprout,  even  though 
it  is  warm  ;  but  the  grain  that  is  kept  warm,  that  gets  some  air, 
and  that  has  a  little  moisture  soon  sprouts  and  starts  to  grow. 
We  now  conclude  that  for  seeds  to  sprout  they  must  have 
water,  heat  and  air,  and  if  any  one  of  these  three  be  lacking, 
sprouting  will  not  take  place. 

By  means  of  warm,  moistened  cloths  we  can  tell  whether  the 
seed  grain  that  we  desire  to  sow  is  likely  to  sprout  or  not  in 
the  ground,  and  about  how  much  is  likely  to  grow.  This  is 
important,  as  seeds  when  they  are  old  lose  the  power  of  sprout- 
ing. Some  seeds  lose  their  vitality  or  power  of  sprouting  much 
sooner  than  others.  Can  you  find  out  which  these  are  ? 


How  a  young  walnut  (jets  out  of  its  shell.  Note 
the  thick,  fleshy  tap  mot.  Compare  with  Kig.  7. 
Where  are  the  seed  leaves  ? 


Great  oaks  from  little  acorns 
grow."  The  young  plant 
feeds  on  the  "  meat  "  in  the 
acorn  till  the  root  is  able  to 
get  nourishment  from  the 
soil.  Look  again  at  Fig.  2. 


THE   SEED.  5 

CONCLUSIONS  : — 

1.  Seeds  will  not  sprout  unless  they  get  some  water  or 

moisture. 

2.  Seeds  will  not  sprout  when  the  ground  is  too  cold. 

3.  Seeds  will  not  sprout  when  they  are  in  undrained  soil 

that  is  full  of  water,  because  they  cannot  get  air. 

4.  Seeds  will  not  sprout  when  they  are  buried  too  deeply 

so  that  the  air  cannot  reach  them. 

The  seed  is  the  beginning  of  the  plant,  and  with  the  plant, 
as  with  so  many  other  things,  it  is  of  very  great  importance  to 
have  a  good  start.  This  means  that  we  should  have  good  liv- 
ing seed — seed  that  will  grow,  free  from  weed  seeds.  Then  we 
must  have  a  good,  fine,  level  seed-bed,  on  a  well-drained  field, 
so  that  the  seed  can  be  sown  evenly  and  covered  properly. 
Moderate  rains  and  bright  sunshine  will  cause  the  seed  to 
sprout,  and  the  young  plants  will  soon  appear  at  the  same  time 
in  all  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  field.  This  brings  us  to  the 
study  of  the  young  plant,  which  will  form  the  next  chapter. 

Describe  the  seeds  of  corn  or  maize,  buckwheat,  the  turnip,  the 
thistle,  the  dandelion,  the  strawberry,  the  gooseberry,  the  pumpkin,  the 
grape,  the  cherry,  the  apple,  the  maple,  the  elm,  the  basswood,  the  beech, 
the  hickory. 

What  is  the  effect  of  steeping  seed  just  before  it  is  sown?  What  kind 
of  water  should  be  used — hot,  warm,  or  cold  ? 

How  are  seeds  distributed  naturally  ? 

What  kinds  of  seeds  may  be  easily  carried  by  water,  by  wind,  by  birds, 
by  animals? 

Why  do  we  find  willows  along  streams  ? 


AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  YOUNG  PLANT. 

We  have  learned  that  seeds 
will  sprout  when  they  have  water, 
heat,  and  air.  But  there  must 
not  be  too  much  water,  for  then 
they  will  simply  become  soft  and 
decay;  nor  must  there  be  too 
much  heat,  for  then  they  will  be 

Fig.  6— A  Bean  showing  tip  of  rootlet      Hri^rl    nr>  unrl    Vill^rl         WP  hnvp 
or  radicle  at  r;  also  with  parts  separ-  1    UP  a" 

ated  showing  tip  just  starting  to  grow.  snOwn  how  they  can  be  sprouted 
between  layers  of  moist  flannel  or  blotting  paper.  When  sprouted 
in  that  way  their  growth  can  be  watched  day  by  day ;  but  this 
plan  of  sprouting  seeds  will  not  allow  us  to  watch  their  growth 
to  a  very  large  size.  If  we  wish  to  see  them  grow  up  into  full- 
sized  plants  we  must  plant  the  seeds  in  soil.  We  can  do  so  in 
a  box  of  clean  garden  soil  placed  in  a  sunny  window,  or  out  of 
doors  in  warm  weather.  We  may  plant  some  peas,  beans,  or 
pumpkin  seeds.  Let  us  take  a  handful  of  bean  seeds.  As 
they  are  rather  large  in  size  we  must  cover  them  thoroughly 
with  soil  about  an  inch  deep.  At  the  same  time  we  might  put 
in  a  few  seeds  four,  five  or  six  inches  deep,  and  also  place 
three  or  four  right  on  the  surface,  to  observe  the  effect  on  them 
in  contrast  with  those  planted  at  the  proper  depth.  We  then 
water  the  soil  slightly  every  day. 

After  two  days  we  carefully  take  up  a  couple  of  seeds  to  see 
what  has  taken  place.  Then  we  put  them  back  carefully.  In 
this  way,  day  by  day,  we  examine  carefully  a  couple  of  the 
seeds  until  we  find  them  starting  to  sprout. 


THE   YOUNG   PLANT. 


When  they  have  once  sprouted 
we  can  take  up  a  plant  every  day 
to  see  what  change  is  taking 
place.  We  should  have  enough 
plants  growing  so  that  we  can 
throw  away  each  little  plant  after 
we  have  examined  it.  First  we 
find  the  seeds  becoming  moist 
from  the  water  in  the  soil,  and 


Fig  8.— Seed  Pea  and  young  pea 
plant. 


Fig.  7. —  Bean  Seed  ;  also  young  plant 
on  right,  and,  in  the  centre,  a  plant 
showing  two  seed  leaves,  also  first 
pair  of  true  leaves  above. 

soon  turning  soft.  The  beans  swell 
a  little  and  soon  break  open  the 
outer  covering  or  husk.  The  two 
thick  leaves  of  the  seed  separate  a 
little  and  a  few  fine  roots  push  out 
into  the  soil.  The  little  tip  between 
the  seed  leaves  begins  to  grow 
larger  and  pushes  up  towards  the  air. 
The  plant  never  makes  a  mistake ; 
the  roots  always  grow  out  and 
down  into  the  soil  and  the  little  tip 


8 


AGRICULTURE. 


that  forms  the  stalk  always  grows  up  into  the  air,  whether  the 
seed  is  lying  upside  down  or  not.  The  roots  lengthen  out  and 
branch  into  a  little  bunch  of  fine  fibres,  and  the  stalk  soon 
brings  the  two  leaves  above  ground.  Sometimes  we  can  see 
the  old  husk  of  the  seed  still  clinging  to  one  of  the  seed  leaves, 
which  are  generally  quite  smooth  and  simple  in  form.  The 
stalk  grows  on  higher  and  higher  ;  new  leaves  form ;  little 
branches  are  thrown  out ;  leaves  form  on  these ;  and  now  we 
see  the  general  form  or  make-up  of  the  plant.  By  this  time 
we  observe  that  the  two  seed  leaves  have  become  thin  and  soon 
disappear.  They  appear  to  be  of  use  only  in  the  first  few  days 
of  the  sprouting  of  the  seed  and  the  early  growth  of  the  young 
plant.  What  is  their  use  ?  They  are  different  in  shape  and 
size  from  the  ordinary  leaves  of  the  plant.  They  are  thick  at 
first,  and  soon  become  thin  and  disappear.  They  are  nothing 
else  than  little  sacks  of  food  stored  up  in  the  seed  to  feed  the 
young  plant  until  it  forms  roots  and  leaves  and  is  able  to  get 
food  for  itself  from  the  soil  and  the  air. 

PARTS  OF  THE  PLANT. — The  roots  spread  out  or  go  down 
through  the  soil ;  the  stalk  grows  up  and  branches  out ;  the 
leaves  grow  along  the  side  and  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches.  These  three  parts — roots,  stalk  and 
branches,  and  leaves — are  quite  different  in  form 
and  in  color,  and  we  may  conclude  that  they 
also  have  different  work  to  do  in  the  life  of  the 
plant. 

We  can  easily  study  these  three  parts  in  larger 
plants.  In  the  case  of  a  carrot  the  root  is  thick 
and  long  and  pushes  itself  straight  down  into  the 
soil.  We  call  such  a  root  a  tap  root.  But  along 
this  root  we  find  a  large  number  of  fine,  hairy-like 
rootlets,  to  which  the  fine  particles  of  soil  cling 

Fig.  9. — Tap- 
root, as  of  a  closely.     These  are  the  feeders  of  the  big  root. 

carrot,  show- 

fefdlngro^I          *n  the  CaS6  °f  a  StOC)1  °f  wheat    Or  OatS  We 


THE   YOUNG   PLANT. 


a  mass  of  fine  roots.  We  call  such  a  root 
fibrous.  In  the  case  of  large  trees,  we  find 
large  roots  running  off  in  all  directions, 
many  of  them  for  long  distances.  If  we 
take  up  a  piece  of  tree  root,  we  find  the  outer 
end  covered  with  fresh,  fine,  hairy-like  roots. 
These  are  the  feeders  of  the  big  roots. 

How  do  roots  grow  ?  A  man's  arm  is 
longer  and  larger  than  a  boy's  arm.  How 
did  it  grow?  Not  simply  by  adding  on  at  Fig.  10.—  Fibrous  root, 

as  of  grass. 

the  end,  for  in  that  case  the  man's  arm  would 

be  merely  the  boy's  arm  with  very  long  fingers.     All  parts  of  the 

arm  must  have  grown  at  the  same  time.     A  root  would  find  it 

very  difficult  to  grow  in  that  way  through  the  soil.     It  adds  on  at 

the  end  or  the  tip.     Sometimes  a  root  has  to  go  around  a  large 

stone  ;  a  bend  is  formed  in  the  root.     How  difficult  it  would 

be  for  the  root  if  it  had  to  keep  pulling  itself  around  that  stone 

as  it  grew  longer.     Roots,  of  course,  grow  larger  and  thicker, 

pushing  aside  the  soil  and  even  rocks  ;  but 

they  lengthen  at  the  tips  and  take  in  the 

food  from  the  soil  through  the  fine,  hairy 

rootlets,  which  are  always  found  in  largest 

numbers   near   the   ends   of   the   newly- 

formed  roots. 

Two  other  things  we  notice,  namely,  the 
roots  do  not  bear  leaves  and  they  are  not 
green.  They  are  generally  light  colored 
inside  with  a  dark  covering.  They  are 
also  quite  pliable  —  easily  bent  or  twisted  ; 

f     ,     .,  ,      f  ..  .     .     Fig.  it.—  End  of  Root,  my 

in  fact  they  are  made  for  working  their    ercd    with    fine,  hairy 

•  ,         .1  i      .1  •«  1  i 

way  easily   through  the  soil  and  around 

•n     11  i  i          f 

stones.  Pull  up  a  bunch  of  grass  and 
observe  how  the  roots  cling  to  the  fine  soil. 
Also  observe  how  crooked  a  tree  root  grows. 


feeding  rootlets,     a   s  up 

hardened  for  protection; 

/>is    crowing    part  ;    c    is 

older  part  of  Toot.   The 


''  wb'ch 


10 


AGRICULTURE. 


The  stalk  is  compact  and  strong,  built  for  holding  up  a 
heavy  weight.  When  young  the  stalk  and  branches  are  green 
in  color;  as  they  grow  older  the  color  becomes  darker  and 
duller,  and  the  soft,  smooth  skin  changes  to  hard,  rough  bark. 
The  stalk  and  branches  are  much  stiffer  than  the  roots  ;  if  they 
were  as  pliable  as  the  roots  they  would  not  be  able  to  hold 
themselves  up  in  the  form  that  we  see.  Most  plants,  however, 
are  pliable  enough  to  yield  to  strong  wind  and  thus  avoid  being 
broken.  The  last  thing  to  be  noticed  here  in  regard  to  them 
is  that  what  is  called  "  the  grain  "  goes  along  and  not  across 
the  branch  and  stalk.  We  can  split  a  piece  of  wood  along  its 
grain,  but  we  have  to  saw  or  break  it  if  we  wish  to  divide  it 
across  the  grain.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  a  strong  wind 
upon  plants,  trees,  forests,  if  the  grain  ran  across  instead  of 
along  the  stalks,  limbs,  trunks,  and  branches  ? 

The  most  noticeable  points  in  connection  with  leaves  are 
their  shape,  their  number,  and  their  color.  The  leaf  is  generally 
flat  and  very  thin.  Its  outline  or  form  varies  with  different 
kinds  of  plants.  Contrast  the  thick,  needle-shaped  leaf  of  the 
pine  and  the  thin,  long,  pointed  blade  of  grass  with  the  leaves 
of  the  oak,  maple,  basswood,  and  willow. 

Take  a  green  maple  leaf ;  draw  its  outline ;  trace  the  frame- 
work upon  which  it  is  formed.  Then  glue  or  paste  it  between 

two  sheets  of  paper  or  cloth 
and  dry  carefully.  Pull  these 
two  sheets  apart  and  thereby 
split  the  leaf.  We  thus  see 
that  the  leaf  is  a  thin  web 
stretched  upon  a  framework  of 
fine  branches,  and  we  observe 
that  the  branching  of  these 

Fig.  12.— Section  of  a  Leaf.    A ,  row  of  cells     .,          r    ,       ,      r          •  ,•,,- 

to.ming  skin  on  upper  side;  B,  row  of  ribs  of  the  leaf  vanes  m  differ- 

cells  next  to  skin  ;  1),  next  row  of  cells;  ,  •     j          /•   i  c     -u „ 

C,  air  spaces  in  leaf;  E,  inner  portion  of  6nt    kinds    Of    leaves  ;  further, 

cells  filled  with  sap;  F,  row  of  cells  form-    .,      .      .1  •>      .1        i_0r  :, 

ing  under  skin   or    leaf  showing  mouths   that     though    the    leal  IS 
or  openings  (stomnta). 


THE    YOUNG    PLANT.  II 

thin,  yet  it  is  made  up  of  different  layers,  two  skins  with  softer 
layers  between. 

Draw  the  leaves  of  all  the  different  forest  and  shade  trees  found  in 
your  locality. 

The  new  leaves  of  spring  and  early  summer  are  green;  as 
summer  advances  they  change  in  color  somewhat,  and  in  the 
fall  the  green  turns  to  brown  or  yellow  or  red.  The  young 
shoots  also  are  green  in  color  at  first,  becoming  duller  and 
darker  in  color  as  they  become  older  and  stiffer.  But  observe 
the  many  different  shades  of  green  in  the  leaves  of  different 
kinds  of  trees — even  different  kinds  of  maples  show  tints  that 
slightly  vary.  Even  the  two  sides  of  the  same  leaf  are  not  of 
the  same  shade.  This  can  be  seen  on  a  windy  day  when  the 
wind  blows  the  leaves  over. 

What  causes  the  green  color  ?  Place  a  small  piece  of  board 
on  the  green  grass  ;  after  a  few  days  lift  the  board  and  observe 
that  the  grass  under  it  has  become  paler  in  color,  has  been 
bleached  out.  Leave  the  board  off  and  the  grass  will  soon 
become  green  again.  When  potatoes  start  to  grow  in  a  dark 
cellar  their  sprouts  are  white,  the  tips  grow  towards  the  light, 
and  if  they  reach  direct  sunlight  they  become  green.  We 
conclude  from  the  above  that  the  sunlight  in  some  way  or 
other  is  the  cause  of  the  green  color  in  the  leaves.  (The 
name  chlorophyl^  applied  to  the  green-colored  matter  in  the 
leaf,  means  "  leaf  green.") 

Why  are  the  roots  not  green  like  the  leaves  ? 
Are  evergreens  of  the  same  color  in  winter  as  in  summer  ? 
Why  is  the  growth  of  trees  less  and  less,   or  more  stunted,  as  we  go 
farther  north  ? 

When  do  evergreens  shed  their  leaves  ? 

Compare  the  cones  of  different  evergreens. 

Where  do  we  find  the  most  evergreen  trees,  and  why  ? 

Where  the  most  deciduous  ? 


12  AGRICULTURE;. 


CHAPTER   III. 


THE  PLANT  AND  WATER. 

THE  WATF.R  OF  THE  PLANT. — In  a  long  season  of  drouth, 
the  grass  turns  brown  and  withers,  the  leaves  of  the  trees 
dry  up,  and  shrubs  and  plants  of  all  kinds  droop  and  die. 
In  the  case  of  plants  grown  in  the  house,  everyone  knows  that 
they  must  be  watered  regularly.  When  the  rains  are  frequent, 
how  the  grass  grows,  and  how  all  plant  life  becomes  green  and 
thrifty  !  Nothing  more  need  be  said  to  prove  that  water  is 
one  of  the  most  important  foods  for  plants.  Further,  we 
find  some  water  in  all  plants,  some  fruits  being  made  up  of  over 
nine-tenths  water.  If  any  plant,  or  any  part  of  a  plant,  such 
as  a  piece  of  root,  a  chunk  of  green  wood,  a  bunch  of  green 
grass,  or  a  handful  of  leaves,  be  placed  in  a  warm  oven,  it  will 
gradually  become  lighter  in  weight  owing  to  its  losing  water  or 
becoming  drier.  Even  well-dried  wood  will  lose  a  little  water. 
If  we  were  to  take  100  pounds  of  several  substances,  such  as 
the  following,  and  dry  them  out  thoroughly,  we  would  find  that 
they  would  become  lighter  by  the  following  amounts,  that  is, 
they  would  lose  these  amounts  of  water  : 

Roots,    carrots,    turnips,  etc ,  85  to  95  pounds. 

Potatoes 75       " 

Green  pasture  grass 80       " 

Timber  wood 40  to  50       " 

Dried  or  cured  hay 15       " 

Grains,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  etc ....  10  to  15       " 

We  can  therefore  say  that  roots  contain  from  85  to  95   per 
cent,  of  water,  potatoes  75  per  cent.,  etc. 


THE   PLANT   AND   WATER.  13 

How  DOES  THE  WATER  GET  IN?— We  can  answer  this 
first  question  by  carefully  observing  as  follows :  When 
house  plants  are  watered,  we  do  not  pour  the  water  on  the 
leaves  and  branches,  but  on  the  soil  that  contains  the  roots. 
When  the  earth  above  the  roots  has  been  allowed  to  become 
too  dry,  the  gardener  sometimes  sets  the  whole  pot,  earth  and 
roots,  in  a  pail  of  water  until  the  soil  has  become  thoroughly 
wet.  Two  pots  of  the  same  size  and  shape  may  be  taken,  one 
having  a  plant  growing  in  the  soil  and  the  other  containing 
only  soil.  Then  place  them  side  by  side  and  water  the  soil  in 
both  with  the  same  amount  of  water.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  soil  in  which  the  plant  is  growing  will  become  dry  much 
more  quickly  than  the  soil  having  no  plant. 

If  we  could  examine  the  drains  coming  from  under  two  fields 
having  the  same  kind  of  soil,  one  having  little  or  nothing  grow- 
ing upon  it  and  the  other  having  a  heavy  crop,  such  as  roots, 
corn  or  hay,  we  would  see  that  much  more  water  drains  away 
from  the  bare  field  than  from  the  field  bearing  a  crop. 

Perhaps  you  have  noticed  a  bulb  or  a  slip  from  some  rapidly- 
growing  plant  being  started  in  a  vase  or  glass  bottle  filled  with 
water.  If  you  take  two  glass  bottles  of  the  same  size  and  fill 
both  with  water  and  place  a  growing  plant  slip  in  one,  you  will 
notice  that  the  water  in  the  one  having  the  plant  slip  will  dis- 
appear more  rapidly  than  the  water  in  the  other  bottle.  Some- 
times it  can  be  shown  even  more  clearly  by  placing  a  few  large 
white  flowers,  such  as  lilies  or  chrysanthemums,  in  water  that 
has  been  colored  red  or  blue.  After  a  while  some  red  or  blue 
color  will  appear  in  the  flowers. 

We  conclude  from  the  above  that  the  water  passes  into  the 
plant  by  way  of  the  roots. 

How  DOES  THE  WATER  GET  OUT  ?— It  is  quite  evident  that 
there  is  not  room  in  the  plant  to  hold  all  that  goes  in.  Wher- 
ever we  cut  into  a  living  plant  we  find  it  damp  and  the  cells 


14  AGRICULTURE. 

filled  up,  so  that  as  water  is  constantly  going  in  by  way  of  the 
roots,  it  must  be  passing  out  by  some  way. 

When  the  soil  becomes  very  dry  and  the  plants,  as  we  say, 
suffer  from  drouth,  the  first  place  where  we  observe  the  effect 
is  in  the  leaves.  These  droop  and  wilt  and  lose  their  freshness, 
and  soon  after  watering  they  become  fresh-looking  again. 

Let  us  take  a  clear  bottle  and  wipe  it  out  so  as  to  have  it 
perfectly  clear,  clean  and  dry  on  the  inside.  Then  we  carefully 
place  it  over  the  branch  of  a  growing  plant  so  as  to  have  the 
bottle  pretty  well  filled  with  leaves.  We  leave  it  there,  fastened 
up  securely,  for  a  time ;  after  a  while  we  observe  a  fine  film  on 
the  inside  of  the  bottle.  When  we  take  it  off  we  notice  that 
the  bottle  is  damp  on  the  inside,  some  water  has  been  depos- 
ited upon  it  from  the  leaves.  We  observe  the  same  kind  of  a 
film  on  a  piece  of  looking-glass  when  we  breathe  upon  it.  In 
fact,  we  can  take  a  piece  of  dry  looking-glass  and  fasten  it 
to  a  plant  leaf  and  get  a  faint  film  of  moisture  from  the  leaf  as 
from  our  breath.  Further,  if  we  try  first  the  upper  side  of  the 
leaf  and  then  the  under,  we  shall  find  that  the  moisture  comes 
almost  entirely  from  the  under  side. 

We  conclude,  then,  that  the  water  passes  out  by  the  leaves 
and  principally  from  the  under  surface.  If  we  had  a  microscope, 
that  is  ail  instrument  for  making  small  things  appear  large,  we 
could  examine  the  two  sides  of  the  leaf  of  any  plant,  and  then 
we  would  observe  that  on  the  under  side  there  are  a  great 
many  little  mouths,  or  pores,  or  openings  whereby  the  water 
can  pass  out,  and  that  these  are  drawn  up  smaller  as  the  air 
becomes  drier  so  as  to  prevent  too  great  loss  of  water.  Each 
of  these  mouths  or  pores  is  called  a  "  stoma,"  and  when  we 
speak  of  two  or  more  we  call  them  "  stomata." 

We  have  called  these  mouths  or  pores ;  they  are  openings 
through  which  the  plant  breathes,  and  they  are  generally  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf,  several  hundred  or  several  thousand  on 
every  leaf.  In  the  case.of  such  a  plant  as  the  water  lily,  whose 


THE   PLANT   AND   WATER. 


large  round  leaves  lie  flat  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  the 
stomata  or  mouths  of  the  leaves  *^^> — /• 

are  found  to  be  on  the  upper 
side.  Why  has  nature  made  this 
change  ? 

Animals  soon  suffer  from  thirst, 
although  they  have  some  water 
in  nearly  every  kind  of  food  that 
they  eat.  But  plants  require 
water  quite  as  much.  There  is 
nothing  so  important  in  connec- 
tion with  plant  growth  as  having 
a  proper  supply  of  water — not 
too  much  and  not  too  little. 
When  the  rains  come  at  the  right 
time  and  in  the  right  quantities, 
nearly  every  soil  bears  good  Fis-  i3--Undersideof  leaf.  A  shows 

the    mouths  or  stomata  with  small 

crops  :  where  no  rains  fall  we  find     ha«r  °n  leaf  at  h-    B  isL  a  section, 

showing  stoma  or  mouth  at  s,  the 

a  desert.  air  space  is  at  a,  and  g  is  a  guard 

cell   which    opens  and   closes    the 
mouth  or  stoma. 

CONCLUSIONS  : 

1.  Water  is  found  in   all  plants  and  in  all  parts  of  living 
plants  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

2.  Water  is  necessary  for  the  life  and  growth  of  plants. 

3.  Water  goes  into  the  plants  through  the  hairy  rootlets  at 
the  tips  of  the  fresh  roots  and  passes  out  through  the  thousands 
of  tiny  mouths  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

4.  The  mouths  or  breathing  pores  are  called  stomata.   These 
open  wider  as  the  air  becomes  damp  and  partially  close  as  the 

air  becomes  dry. 
SUGGESTIVE  : — 

What  gives  rigidity  and  firmness  to  a  geranium  leaf? 

Which  contains  proportionately  the  more  water,   an  apple  leaf  or  nn 
apple  twig? 


1 6  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  PLANT  AND  THE  SOIL. 

THE  POWER  OF  WATER  TO  DISSOLVE  SUBSTANCES. — If 
we  drop  a  little  common  salt  into  a  glass  of  water,  it  will 
disappear  from  sight ;  but  if  we  taste  the  water  we  find  that  it 
is  salty — the  salt  has  been  dissolved  in  the  water.  If  we  pour 
out  the  salty  water  into  a  saucer,  and  set  it  in  a  warm  place, 
the  water  will  gradually  become  less  and  less,  and  we  shall 
soon  see  the  white  salt  reappear  as  a  fine  white  crust.  We 
know  now  that  salt  is  soluble  in  water.  If  we  keep  on  adding 
salt  to  the  water  in  the  glass  we  shall  find  that  after  a  while  no 
more  salt  will  be  dissolved,  but  what  we  add  will  remain  un- 
dissolved  in  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  We  conclude,  therefore, 
that  the  water  can  dissolve  a  certain  amount  of  salt  and  no 
more — that  there  is  a  limit  to  the  power  of  the  water  to  dissolve 
the  salt.  We  can  make  the  same  trial  or  experiment  with 
other  substances,  such  as  sugar,  saltpetre,  etc. 

But  all  substances  are  not  soluble.  If  we  place  some  sand 
in  the  glass  of  water  it  will  not  dissolve.  If  we  stir  up  some 
road  dust  in  a  glass  of  clean  water,  the  water  will  at  once  be- 
come dirty ;  but  after  a  while  the  dirt  will  settle  and  the  water 
clear  up.  Sometimes  when  we  examine  salt  by  putting  a  little 
in  water  we  find  a  small  quantity  of  hard,  gritty  substance  set- 
tling at  the  bottom  undissolved — this  is  not  salt,  but  an  impurity 
in  the  salt.  If  there  were  any  sand  in  the  sugar  it  would  not 
dissolve.  A  nail  will  not  dissolve  in  the  water,  though  it  can 
be  more  or  less  dissolved  if  there  is  a  little  acid  in  the  water. 
If  we  take  a  handful  of  hardwood  ashes  and  stir  them  up  in  a 
bowl  of  water,  a  large  portion  will  settle  to  the  bottom  undia 


THE   PLANT   AND   THE   SOIL.  17 

solved,  but  the  water  will  feel  and  taste  soapy.  There  is 
evidently  something  soluble  in  wood  ashes,  and  also  some- 
thing insoluble.  If  we  take  coal  ashes  instead  of  wood 
ashes,  we  shall  find  that  there  is  little  or  nothing  soluble  in  the 
coal  ashes.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  wood  ashes  contain 
much  more  soluble  matter  than  coal  ashes.  This  soluble 
matter  is  food  for  plants.  If  we  take  a  piece  of  limestone  and 
pour  water  upon.it  we  shall  find  that  little  or  no  change  takes 
place ;  but  if  we  use  a  little  weak  acid  (even  vinegar  will  have 
some  effect),  we  find  that  the  limestone  will  dissolve.  If,  in- 
stead of  limestone,  we  take  freshly-burnt  lime — quick-lime — 
we  find  that  the  water  will  take  up  some  of  the  lime,  as  we  can 
tell  by  tasting  it. 

We  conclude  that  some  substances  are  quickly  soluble  in 
water,  some  slowly  soluble,  some  insoluble,  and  that  weak  acids 
will  have  the  effect  of  dissolving  some  substances,  such  as  lime- 
stone and  iron,  that  do  not  dissolve  in  water  alone. 

Further,  we  find  that  water  can  dissolve  only  a  certain 
quantity  of  any  substance — that  its  power  of  dissolving  is 
limited  ;  and  when  the  water  evaporates  or  passes  off  into  the 
air,  the  substances,  such  as  salt,  sugar,  and  lime,  that  were 
dissolved  in  it,  reappear  as  salt,  sugar,  and  lime. 

If  we  pour  milk  through  a  fine  strainer,  the  milk  all  passes 
through,  and  the  dirt  that  was  not  dissolved  remains  behind. 
If  we  stir  up  some  hardwood  ashes  in  a  glass  of  water  and 
then  pour  it  through  a  very  fine  strainer,  we  find  the  undis- 
solved  ashes  remain  behind,  and  the  water  that  passes  through 
is  soapy  in  taste. 

We  conclude  that  the  substances  dissolved  in  the  water  go 
along  with  the  water  wherever  it  passes  in  the  liquid  form. 

Take  a  clean  unglazed  earthen  flower  pot ;  stop  up  the  hole  in  the 
bottom,  fill  it  with  water,  and  throw  into  the  water  a  handful  of  salt. 
Allow  the  pot  to  stand  undisturl>ed.  After  a  while  a  deposit  will  appear 
on  the  outside  of  the  pot.  Taste  it,  it  is  salty.  Explain. 


1 8  AGRICULTURE. 

How  MINERAL  FOOD  GETS  INTO  THE  PLANT. — We  have 
before  learned  that  water  goes  into  the  plant  through  the 
roots  and  passes  out  by  the  leaves ;  there  must  therefore 
be  a  movement  of  the  water  through  the  plant ;  and  we 
thus  conclude  that  the  water  can  carry  along  with  it  into 
the  plant,  and  through  it,  some  substances  taken  up  in  solu- 
tion from  the  soil,  that  is,  that  it  will  take  into  the  plant 
whatever  it  finds  in  the  soil  that  can  be  dissolved.  This  is  not 
quite  the  case,  for  the  roots  appear  to  have  the  power,  in  large 
measure,  of  taking  up  the  substances  that  the  plant  requires  ; 
the  roots  have  a  certain  amount  of  what  may  be  called 
"  selective  "  power. 

One  thing  more  may  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
taking  in  of  food  by  the  roots;  there  is  a  small  amount  of 
weak  acid  found  in  the  ends  of  the  roots,  so  that  wherever 
the  fine,  hairy  rootlets  come  into  contact  with  the  soil  they 
are  helped  by  this  weak  acid  to  dissolve  small  quantities  of 
material  that  the  water  alone,  without  this  acid,  could  not  take 
up.  It  is  because  of  this  that  we  frequently  find  the  marks  of 
plant  roots  on  the  face  of  hard  rocks,  showing  where  the  roots 
by  their  acids  have  eaten  out  some  of  the  rock. 

When  we  burn  wood  in  the  stove  we  have  left  what  is  called 
the  ashes.  If  we  burn  up  some  straw,  or  grain,  in  fact  any 
kind  of  a  plant,  we  have  left  some  ashes.  This  ash  is  earthy 
in  nature.  Sometimes  it  is  called  the  "  mineral  matter  "  of  the 
plant.  It  has  all  gone  into  the  plant  by  way  of  the  roots,  dis- 
solved in  the  water  of  the  soil.  When  this  ash  or  mineral 
matter  is  taken  apart  and  examined  by  a  chemist,  it  is  found 
to  contain  such  substances  as  compounds  of  lime,  soda,  and 
potash.  From  100  pounds  of  plants  taken,  we  get  one  to  five 
pounds  of  ash  or  mineral  matter;  we  therefore  say,  that  the  ash 
or  mineral  matter  forms  from  one  to  five  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
plant,  and  it  has  all  come  from  the  soil. 

The  mineral  matter  of  the  soil,  after  being  dissolved  in  the 


THE   PLANT   AND   THE   SOIL.  1C) 

water  of  the  soil,  passes  into  the  plant,  is  carried  by  the 
circulation  of  the  sap  to  all  parts,  and  is  used  in  helping  to 
build  up  the  various  parts  of  the  plant.  When  matter  gets  into 
the  plant  in  this  way  that  is  not  required,  some  of  it  may  be- 
come deposited  in  various  parts  of  the  plant,  but  much  of  it  is 
carried  to  the  outside  of  the  leaf  and  of  the  bark,  and  left  there 
as  the  water  evaporates.  In  the  case  of  some  plants,  more 
mineral  matter  is  taken  up  from  the  soil  than  the  sap  can  hold 
in  solution,  and  some  of  the  salts  are  found  in  a  solid  form  in 
the  little  sacs  or  cells  of  which  the  plant  is  made  up.  These 
are  often  seen  by  a  magnifying  glass  or  microscope  in  the  form 
of  crystals  either  in  the  cells  or  in  the  walls  of  the  cells. 
CONCLUSIONS  : 

1.  The  water  of  the  plant  comes  from  the  water  of  the  soil, 
hence  the  importance  of  rains. 

2.  All  of  the  mineral  or  ash  material  of  the  plant  comes  from 
the  soil,  being  carried  into  the  plant  in  solution  through  the 
roots. 

3.  The  mineral  matter  is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  plant  in 
the  circulation  of  the  sap. 

4.  Some  of  the  mineral  matter  that  is  not  needed  by  the 
plant  is  given  off  from  the  outside  of  the  leaves  and  through  the 
bark. 

5.  It  is  very  important  to  have  the  mineral  or  ash  material 
required  by  the  plant  in  as  soluble  a  form  as  possible  in  the 
soil,  hence  the  importance  of  good  cultivation  and  of  proper 
fertilizing  or  manuring. 


AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  PLANT  AND  THE  AIR. 

THE  COMBUSTIBLE  PART  OF  A  PLANT. — When  we  dry 
any  plant  thoroughly,  we  drive  off  the  water  that  it  contains  ; 
when  we  burn  up  this  dried  portion,  we  have  left  the  ash. 
But  what  about  the  portion  that  has  been  burned  up  ?  What 
was  it  and  where  did  it  come  from  ?  All  plants  contain  fibre 
— woody  fibre  as  we  may  now  call  it ;  this  has  been  burned 
up.  Some  plants,  such  as  sugar  beets,  sugar  cane,  and  corn, 
contain  some  sugar.  Other  plants,  such  as  potatoes,  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  starch.  In  burning,  all  the  fibre,  starch,  and 
sugar  are  burned  up.  Then  such  seeds  as  flaxseed  and  cotton 
seed  contain  oil.  There  are  other  substances,  also,  that  we 
should  know.  For  instance,  if  we  chew  a  few  grains  of  wheat, 
we  find  after  a  short  time  a  small  quantity  of  a  gummy  sub- 
stance remaining  in  the  mouth — it  is  called  gluten.  Then  you 
all  know  that  from  many  different  fruits  a  beautiful  clear  sub- 
stance is  got  by  boiling,  known  as  jelly.  Perhaps  we  have 
mentioned  enough  —  fibre,  starch,  sugar,  oil,  gluten,  jelly 
substances — all  these  and  many  others  similar  to  them  are 
found  in  plants.  They  do  not  pass  off  when  the  water  evapor- 
ates, nor  are  they  left  behind  in  the  ash.  They  are  all  con- 
sumed or  burnt  up  when  the  plant  is  burned. 

What  do  they  consist  of?  In  burning  any  plant  slowly,  the 
first  thing  that  you  notice  is  that  the  plant  becomes  black — 
charred ;  and  by  very  slowly  burning  it  we  can  turn  it  into  a 
black  mass  that  we  call  charcoal,  somewhat  like  coal  in 
appearance.  This  black  color  is  given  to  it  because  of  the 
carbon  which  it  contains.  If  we  could  put  some  of  this 


THE   PLANT   AND   THE   AIR.  21 

charred  plant  into  a  strong  iron  vessel,  having  only  one  small 
open  pipe  leading  from  it,  we  would  find  that  there  were 
gases  coming  away  that  would  burn  with  a  flame ;  and  when 
you  are  further  advanced  in  the  study  of  chemistry  you  will 
be  able  to  prove  that  these  gases  contain,  besides  carbon, 
another  substance  also,  called  hydrogen. 

In  addition  to  these  two,  carbon  and  hydrogen,  both  of 
which  will  burn  in  the  air,  there  are  in  the  plant  small  quan- 
tities of  nitrogen  and  sulphur  and  some  oxygen.  All  of  this 
cannot  be  proved  by  you  at  present,  but  you  will  now  have  to 
accept  the  statement  that  these  parts  of  the  plant  that  are 
burned  up  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
sometimes  sulphur  in  varying  quantities.  The  chemist,  for 
shortness,  refers  to  them  often  simply  by  the  first  letters,  thus : 
C  H  O  N  S. 

WHAT  THE  PLANT  GETS  FROM  THE  AIR. — The  next 
question  is  as  to  where  these  elements  came  from  and  when 
they  got  into  the  plant.  If  they  came  from  the  soil  they  must 
have  been  contained  either  in  the  water  or  in  the  salts  or 
mineral  matter  carried  in  through  the  roots.  Water  is  a 
compound  of  only  two  substances,  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 
Two  of  them,  then,  may  have  come  from  the  rains  and  soil 
water.  The  sulphur  and  the  nitrogen  may  have  come  from 
the  soil  in  part  or  in  whole,  for  we  sometimes  find  soluble  com- 
pounds of  sulphur  in  the  soil,  and  also  compounds  of  nitrogen. 
But  the  carbon  which  is  found  in  such  large  quantity  does 
not  come  from  the  water,  nor  from  the  mineral  matter  of  the 
soil.  There  is  only  one  other  source,  and  that  is  the  atmos- 
phere, or,  as  we  say,  the  air.  If  the  carbon  comes  from  the  air, 
we  at  once  conclude  that  it  gets  into  the  plant  through  the  leaves. 
And  how  wonderfully  well  supplied  is  every  plant  with  leaves 
for  taking  in  food  from  the  air  ! 

The  air  is  a  mixture  of  gases.  Coal  and  charcoal  are  almost 
pure  carbon,  so  that  we  think  of  carbon  as  being  a  solid.  And 


22  AGRICULTURE. 

so  it  is.  But  in  the  air  there  is  a  gas  called  carbonic  acid  gas. 
It  is  formed  wherever  carbon  is  burned.  The  carbon  unites 
with  the  oxygen  gas  of  the  air  and  forms  a  compound,  a  gas, 
that  is  called  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  is  the  source  from  which 
the  plant  gets  its  carbon. 

There  is  only  a  very  small  quantity  of  this  carbonic  acid  gas 
in  the  air,  but  the  plants  have  a  large  number  of  leaves  and 
they  are  broad  and  thin,  and  the  air  is  moving  more  or  less  all 
the  time,  so  that  the  plant  has  no  difficulty  in  getting  all  the 
carbon  that  it  requires.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  air  goes 
in  through  the  leaves ;  the  plant  takes  up  the  carbon  for  its 
own  use  and  sets  free  the  oxygen  gas  with  which  the  carbon 
was  united.  Just  here  we  might  mention  that  all  animals  are 
constantly  breathing  out  carbonic  acid  gas  from  their  lungs, 
and  that  when  too  much  of  it  is  present  the  animals  will  be 
smothered.  We  feel  the  effect  of  it  when  shut  up  in  a  close 
room.  Plants  take  up  this  carbonic  acid  gas,  keep  the  carbon 
and  set  free  the  oxygen,  so  that  plants  are  constantly  purifying 
the  air  for  animals,  and  animals  are  constantly  producing  car- 
bonic acid  gas  to  feed  the  plants.  Nature  has  in  this  way 
made  plants  and  animals  dependent  upon  each  other. 

The  starch  of  potatoes,  the  sugar  of  beets,  the  jelly  of  cur- 
rants and  apples,  the  oil  of  flaxseed  and  the  fibre  of  flax  and 
of  all  parts  of  plants  are  made  up  entirely  of  the  three  elements 
— carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  (C  H  and  O). 
.  The  plants  get  all  the  carbon  from  the  air,  and  the  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  can  all  be  got  from  water,  which,  as  we  have  said, 
is  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  so  that  starch,  sugar, 
jelly,  oil  and  fibre  are  made  up  by  the  plant  from  what  comes 
from  water  and  the  air.  When  a  farmer  sells  from  his  farm 
sugar  or  butter  (oil)  or  fibre  he  is  selling  what  in  the  first  place 
came  from  the  rain  and  the  air,  and  thereby  he  does  not  rob 
the  soil  so  much  as  when  he  sells  grain  or  hay,  since  these 
contain  mineral  or  soil  material. 


THE   PLANT  AND   THE   AIR.  23 

We  have  said  that  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the 
air  is  very  small ;  there  are  only  three  parts  in  every  ten  thou- 
sand parts  by  volume.  The  air,  or  atmosphere,  is  made  up 
almost  entirely  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  mixed  together,  not 
united,  in  the  proportion  of  about  four  to  one ;  that  is,  in  every 
one  hundred  volumes  of  air  there  are  nearly  eighty  parts  of 
nitrogen  to  a  little  over  twenty  parts  of  oxygen.  In  addition, 
there  are  very  small  quantities  of  other  gases,  such  as  ammonia, 
but  we  need  not  refer  to  these  here.  The  facts  now  to  be 
fixed  in  the  memory  are  that  the  plant,  through  the  leaf,  does 
not  take  up  the  nitrogen  and  oxygen  which  are  in  such  large 
quantities,  but  does  take  up  carbon  from  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
which  exists  in  such  small  quantities,  and  from  this  carbon, 
along  with  the  elements  of  water,  it  builds  up  the  larger  portion 
of  its  entire  structure.  How  it  does  this  is  largely  a  mystery. 
CONCLUSIONS  : 

1.  Besides  the  water  and  the  mineral  matter  of  the  plant, 
which  come  in  through  the  roots,  there  are  in   plants  large 
quantities  of  such  substances  as  starch,  sugar,   oil,  and  gluten. 

2.  All  of  these  substances  contain  caibon. 

3.  This  carbon  comes  from  the  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  air. 

4.  Animals  breathe  in  oxygen  and  breathe  out  carbonic  acid 
gas  through  their  lungs  ;  plants  take  in  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
give  off  oxygen  through  their  leaves. 


24  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


STRUCTURE  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT. 

THE  SAP. — All  the  water  used  by  the  plant  enters  through  the 
roots,  and  along  with  it  comes  the  material  that  we  call  the 
mineral  matter,  together  with  the  nitrogen  that  the  plants  require. 
The  stales  and  branches  form  the  frame  work  of  the  plant — its 
body,  so  to  speak.  The  leaves  give  off  the  water  taken  in  by 
the  roots,  and  also  take  up  carbon  from  the  carbonic  acid  gas  of 
the  air.  Now  if  the  water  goes  in  by  the  roots  and  out  from  the 
leaves  it  must  move  through  the  plant — through  the  roots  to  the 
stalk,  thence  to  the  branches,  and  so  on  to  the  leaves.  This 
water  contains  many  substances  in  solution  (sugar,  salts,  and 
other  things) ;  we  call  it  sap,  and  the  movement  is  called  "  the 
circulation  of  the  sap."  We  have  already  referred  to  the  fact 
that  a  limb  will  split  lengthwise,  not  across.  Sometimes,  as  in 
flax  and  in  the  inner  bark  of  basswood,  we  can  pull  off  long 
fine  strings  of  fibre.  These  long  fibres  that  run  up  and  down, 
or  lengthwise,  are  nothing  else  than  strings  of  little  cells,  and 
in  circulation  the  sap  passes  on  through  from  one  to  the  next. 

Frequently  you  see  a  hollow  tree  that  is  alive  and  thrifty  • 
and  when  you  cut  across  a  large  tree  you  notice  that  the  sap  is 
principally  in  the  outer  portion.  The  outer  rings  of  wood  are 
much  wetter  than  the  inner  or  heart  wood.  We  conclude, 
then,  that  the  sap  moves  principally  up  and  down  through  the 
layers  or  fibres  of  the  plant  near  the  outside,  just  under  the 
outer  rough  bark.  The  life  of  the  body  of  the  plant  is  then 
mainly  near  the  outer  bark.  When  we  girdle  a  tree  we  are  apt 
to  kill  it ;  we  can  cut  a  small  nick  into  it,  we  can  tap  it,  or  we 
may  bruise  a  piece  of  the  bark,  and  we  do  not  kill  it.  Now 
you  see  the  reason. 


STRUCTURE   AND   GROWTH   OF  THE   PLANT.  25 

WORK  OF  THE  LEAVES. — The  circulation  of  the  sap  brings 
the  water  and  material  taken  up  from  the  soil  to  the  leaf, 
where  also  is  found  the  carbon  taken  up  from  the  air.  And 
it  is  in  the  green  growing  leaf  that  all  this  material  is  worked 
over  into  such  forms  as  the  plant  can  make  use  of.  The  leaves, 
we  may  say,  are  both  the  lungs  of  the  plant  and  also  the  stom- 
ach. If  fire  burns  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  or  some  blight  or 
disease  attacks  them,  or  insects  devour  them,  the  tree  becomes 
weak  and  in  many  cases  soon  dies. 

We  observe  the  vitality  of  any  plant  in  the  leaves ;  and  we 
should  always  try  to  keep  the  leaves  fresh  and  free  from  attacks 
of  all  kinds.  The  greenhouse  gardener  carefully  washes  the 
leaves  of  his  valuable  plants,  and  the  fruit-grower  sprays  his 
trees  and  bushes  for  this  purpose.  When  the  leaves  have 
worked  over  all  the  food  from  the  air  and  the  soil  (that  is, 
digested  it,  as  we  digest  food  in  the  stomach),  it  is  carried 
away  in  the  sap  to  all  parts  of  the  plant — to  make  root  in  one 
place,  more  leaves  in  another,  to  increase  the  wood  in  the 
branches,  to  form  buds,  or  blossoms,  or  fruit ;  in  fact  to  build 
up  the  plant  in  all  its  parts.  How  all  this  is  done  and  no 
mistake  is  made — how  leaves  are  formed  in  one  place  and 
roots  in  another,  and  buds  in  another,  is,  as  we  have  said 
before,  largely  a  mystery ;  just  as  it  is  a  mystery  how  hair 
is  formed  on  your  head,  teeth  in  your  mouth,  and  nails  upon 
your  fingers. 

We  have  another  point  to  notice  in  regard  to  the  leaves. 
Cut  off  several  long  switches  or  branches  from  a  willow,  a 
maple,  an  oak,  a  spruce,  and  currant  bush.  Observe  how  the 
leaves  are  placed.  They  are  not  attached  by  chance.  In 
some  cases  two  leaves  grow  out  from  the  same  part  on 
opposite  sides.  They  are  said  to  be  opposite.  In  others  there 
is  first  one  on  one  side  and  then  the  next  above  on  the  other 
side.  They  are  said  to  be  alternate.  Then,  if  you  start  with 

the  first  leaf  and  draw  a  line  to  the  next,  and  then  to  the  next, 

3 


26  AGRICULTURE. 

and  so  on,  you  find  that  the  line  goes  around  the  branch  in  a 
spiral  direction.  By  closely  observing  all  these  different 
branches,  you  find  that  in  all  cases  there  is  a  certain  definite 
order  of  arrangement.  Further,  you  find  that  just  as  the  leaves  of 
any  one  kind  of  tree  are  nearly  alike  in  outline,  so  they  are  all 
nearly  alike  as  to  their  form  of  arrangement.  Find  out  this 
mode  or  form  of  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  different  trees 
and  shrubs  with  which  you  are  familiar. 

When  the  leaves  have  done  their  work  they  lose  their  bright 
green  color,  turning  duller,  sometimes  brown  or  almost  white, 
sometimes  yellow,  sometimes  red  and  many-colored.  In  the 
case  of  one  class  of  trees,  such  as  maples,  oaks,  etc.,  they  fall 
off  the  branches — such  trees  are  called  deciduous,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  evergreens.  But  even  the  evergreens  become 
duller  in  the  fall,  and  the  new  growth  of  the  spring  is  of  quite 
a  different  green  from  that  of  the  old  growth. 

THE  BUDS. — The  leaves  do  not  grow  into  branches  or 
flowers.  The  buds  come  every  year  (in  the  fall  and  in  the 
spring)  in  the  angles  or  "  axils  "  of  the  leaves  or  at  the  ends 
of  the  branches,  so  that  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  is  also 
the  arrangement  of  the  buds.  Some  buds  grow  into  branches 
and  some  into  blossoms.  When  a  bud  grows  at  the  end  of 
the  branch  it,  of  course,  by  its  growth 'lengthens  the  branch; 
when  it  comes  on  the  side,  by  its  growth  it  forms  a  side 
branch.  When  we  "  stop  "  a  raspberry  bush  by  pinching  off 
the  growth  at  the  end,  we  cause  the  side  buds  and  branches  to 
grow  out,  and  thereby  make  the  plant  become  bushy. 

If  you  remove  a  bud  formed  in  the  fall,  covered  with 
a  waxy  substance  to  protect  it  in  winter,  or  if  you  take  a 
bud  formed  in  spring  or  summer,  and  carefully  open  it,  you 
find  it  is  a  compact  mass  of  small  leaves — it  is  a  little  branch 
compressed  and  packed  away  ;  and  the  opening  of  the  bud 
is  nothing  else  than  an  unfolding  of  these  leaves  as  they 


STRUCTURE  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT. 


grow  larger.  The  life  of  the  tree  starts  the  leaves  growing,  and 
the  buds  burst  and  open  up,  some  to  form  leaves  and  branches 
and  some  to  form  blossoms. 

BLOSSOMS. — Let  us  take  a  simple  blossom  like  a  yellow 
buttercup.  First  we  find  five  small  leaves  arranged  around 
the  outside.  These  form 
what  is  called  the  calyx, 
and  each  of  these  five 
leaves  is  a  sepal.  Just 
above  these  are  five 
leaves  of  bright  yellow 
color  forming  the  corolla, 
each  of  which  is  called 

3. petal.      Next  inside  the    Fig.  14.  — Parts  of  a  Blossom,  as  follows:   End  of 

,,  i  c        stalk  or  "receptacle  "in  centre;  two  leaves  or  sepa's 

COrOlla  are   a  number  Ot        of  calyx  on  outside;  then  two  leaves  or  petals  of 

little  stems  or  fine  stalks,  lla :  then  two  stamens :  then  two  pisuls- 

with  tiny  balls  on  their  tips  covered  with  fine  dust.  These  are 
called  stamens,  and  the  dust  is  pollen.  Right  in  the  centre  are 
some  more  little  growths  called  the  pistils.  This  blossom,  then, 
has  four  parts — calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils.  If  we  take 
a  buttercup,  we  can  easily  examine  the  parts  by  pulling  them 
off  one  by  one,  beginning  at  the  outside. 

FORMING  SEED  OR  FRUIT. — What  is  the  use  of  these  four 
parts?  The  calyx  and  corolla  are 
simply  two  rows  of  leaves,  green 
and  yellow,  arranged  around  the 
two  other  parts  to  protect  them. 
Observe  their  form  in  the  closed 
bud.  They  guard  the  more  valu- 
able portion,  the  pistils  and 
stamens,  and  when  their  work  is 
done  they  drop  off.  The  fine 
dust  or  pollen  from  the  stamens 
drops  on  the  top  of  the  pistils. 


Fig.  15. — Stamen  and  Pistil.   Stamen  on 
left  showing  a,  the  stalk,  and  b,  the 


head,  covered  with  pollen  dust.  Pistil 
on  right  showing  t,  the  stigma  on 
which  the  pollen  falls;  6  the  style,  and 
d  the  ovary  containing  the  seeds,  a. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Fig.  16.— Complete  Blossom, 
having  calyx,  corolla,  sta- 
mens, and  pistils. 


Sometimes  the  wind  blows  it  over ; 
sometimes  the  insects  carry  it  on 
their  bodies  and  legs.  As  soon  as  the 
pollen  reaches  the  upper  end  of  the 
pistils,  growth  starts  within  the  pistil, 
beginning  at  the  top  (the  stigma)  and 
continuing  down  through  the  fine  stem 
(the  style)  until  it  reaches  the  main 
inner  part  (the  ovary).  It  is  in  this 

part  of  the  blossom  that  the  seed  is  formed. 

Figures  14  and  15,   showing   the  different 

parts  of  a  blossom  taken  apart,  will  help  to 

understand    what    takes    place.     To    form 

seed,  then,  the   pollen  from  the   stamens 

must  reach  the  pistils.     In  some  plants  we 

have  them  side  by  side  in  the  one  blossom, 

in  other  plants  some  blossoms  have  only 

stamens  and  others  only  pistils.     In  this 

latter  case  the  pollen  must  be  carried  by 

the  wind,  or  by  insects,  such  as  bees,  as 

they  go  from  flower  to  flower. 

forms  in  the  ovary  of  the  blossom  after  the 

pollen  has  fallen  from  the  stamens   upon 

the  pistils. 

Compare  the  flowers  of  the  apple  with  those   of  the  cherry,  and  the 

Cowers  of  the  pear  with  those  of  the  plum. 


The  Seed  F'S-  '7  —Incomplete  or 
imperfect  Blossoms.  The 
upper  one  has  stamens, 
but  no  pistils  (male 
blossom);  the  lower  one 
has  pistils,  but  no  sta- 
mens (female  blossom). 


THE   NAMING   AND   CLASSIFICATION    OF   PLANTS.  29 


CHAPTER   VII. 


THE  NAMING  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS. 

The  many  millions  of  human  beings  in  the  world  may  be 
arranged  in  classes  or  great  families.  Sometimes  the  basis  of 
classification  is  their  color ;  thus  we  have  the  white  race,  the 
black  race,  ,the  red  race,  etc.  The  white  race,  also,  may 
be  divided  in  various  ways.  For  instance,  we  speak  of 
the  English-speaking  people,  the  French  people,  the  German 
people,  etc.  The  Indians  are  divided  into  tribes.  These 
classifications  are  based  on  color,  height,  form  of  body,  language, 
and  certain  habits  or  characteristics.  In  a  similar  manner  it  is 
advisable  to  arrange  the  great  plant  world  into  groups  or 
classes — all  those  somewhat  alike  in  one  class,  all  others  some- 
what alike  in  another  class,  and  so  on.  To  these  various 
classes  names  must  be  given.  These  names  are  what  we  call 
the  scientific  or  botanical  names.  They  are  not  always  much 
like  our  common  names  of  plants.  The  common  names  may 
vary  in  different  places,  but  the  botanical  names  must  be  the 
same  the  world  over.  The  botanical  names  are  not  so  familiar 
to  us  as  the  common  names,  hence  they  appear  to  be  very 
difficult ;  but  in  studying  plants,  in  naming  them,  and  in  re- 
ferring to  text  books  on  botany,  it  is  necessary  to  become 
more  or  less  familiar  with  them. 

How  are  we  to  study  a  plant,  to  describe  it,  to  know  the 
plant  referred  to  in  any  botanical  work  ?  How  are  we  to 
identify  any  plant  ?  There  are  the  four  parts — the  roots,  the 
stem,  the  leaves  and  the  blossoms.  The  leaves  really  include 
those  parts  which  we  call  the  blossoms  or  flowers,  as  these  are 
made  up  of  changed  leaves ;  but  for  the  present  we  may  say 


30  AGRICULTURE. 

that  these  are  the  four  parts  named.  In  studying  or  describing 
any  plant,  therefore,  we  find  out  the  nature  or  make-up  of  its 
root,  stem,  leaves  and  blossom.  In  regard  to  the  root,  for 
instance,  we  observe  whether  it  is  tap-rooted  or  fibrous.  We 
note  the  color  and  form  of  the  stem.  We  observe  the  shape 
of  the  leaves  and  their  arrangement  on  the  branches.  In  the 
blossom  we  note  the  form,  number  and  arrangement  of  the  sepals 
or  parts  of  the  calyx,  and  of  the  petals  or  parts  of  the  corolla;  also 
the  number,  form  and  arrangement  of  the  stamens  and  pistils. 

If  we  carefully  observe  a  buttercup  and  a  marsh-marigold  we 
find  that  in  the  main  they  closely  resemble  each  other,  yet 
there  are  differences  in  their  form  and  they  grow  in  different 
locations.  Meadow  rue,  columbine,  anemone  and  hepatica 
also  have  a  strong  family  resemblance  to  these  two  plants. 
These  are  all  classed  together  in  one  great  order  or  family 
known  as  the  Ranunculacea  or  crowfoot  family. 

The  wild  mustard  of  our  grain  fields  and  the  weeds  shep- 
herd's purse  and  pennycress  are  classed  in  another  order  or 
family  known  as  the  Cruciferiz,  so  called  because  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  four  petals  forming  a  cross-like  corolla. 

The  blossoms  of  the  field  pea,  sweet  pea,  bean,  clover  and 
locust  tree  are  much  alike.  These  are  all  classed  in  one  family 
— the  Leguminosce  or  legume  family. 

Compare  the  blossoms  and  leaves  of  the  apple,  pear,  plum, 
cherry,  strawberry  and  hawthorn  with  the  wild  or  single  rose. 
They  all  belong  to  one  family — the  Rosacecz  or  rose  family. 

The  carrot  and  the  parsnip  form  a  cluster  of  flowers  in  form 
called  an  umbel,  hence  these  belong  to  the  family  Umbelliferce. 

In  many  common  plants  we  have  the  flowers  in  a  dense  or 
thick  head  like  the  blossom  of  a  field  daisy  or  of  a  sunflower. 
The  thistles,  burdocks,  everlasting,  golden  rod,  aster,  yarrow, 
dandelion  and  lettuce  are  other  members  of  the  same  family 
— the  composite  family,  or  Composites. 


NATURE   AND   ORIGIN   OF   THE   SOIL.  '  31 


PART   II. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 


NATURE  AND  ORIGIN  OF  THE  SOIL. 

All  the  plants  grown  upon  the  farm  or  in  the  garden  grow 
in  the  soil;  even  those  that  appear  to  be  growing  in  streams 
and  marshes  have  their  roots  in  the  soil  beneath  the  water. 
Sometimes  we  see  plants  grown  in  water  only  in  the  house  or 
greenhouse,  but  most  of  those  found  there  are  grown  in  pots 
filled  with  soil.  The  plants  found  on  the  surface  of  rocks  and 
on  old  rail  fences  are  of  a  low,  simple  order.  We  may  then 
conclude  that  most  of  the  plants  that  we  are  now  familiar  with 
require  soil,  and  we  therefore  shall  study  for  a  while  the  soil, 
its  nature,  its  origin,  and  its  improvement. 

KINDS  OF  SOIL. — Sandy  soil  is  made  up  principally  of  sand. 
If  we  take  a  handful  of  dry  sand  we  find  that  it  consists  of 
small  hard  grains  that  are  easily  mixed  together.  If  we 
moisten  it,  it  will  cling  together  and  can  be  moulded  into 
various  forms,  but  when  it  dries  the  particles  all  fall  'apart 
into  fine  sand  as  before.  Then  there  is  clay  of  various  colors, 
sometimes  red,  sometimes  almost  white,  sometimes  nearly 
blue.  If  we  moisten  it  we  can  mould  it,  but  when  it  dries 
it  keeps  its  shape  and  becomes  hard.  We  readily  see  the 
difference.  When  we  walk  over  wet  sandy  soil  and  wet 
clayey  soil,  the  former,  when  dry,  readily  rubs  off  our  boots, 
the  latter  sticks.  Sand  is  used  for  making  moulds  in  the 
foundry  and  clay  is  used  for  making  models  by  the  artist;  the 


32  AGRICULTURE. 

former  readily  falls  apart  after  being  taken  out  of  the  boxes 
and  can  be  used  again,  and  the  latter  when  moulded  and 
worked  keeps  its  shape  as  it  dries. 

Make  two  sets  of  objects  (such  as  balls,  cubes,  cups,  vases  or  simple 
figures  of  small  animals),  one  set  from  wet  sand  and  one  set  from  clay. 
Place  them  in  the  sun  or  near  the  stove  and  observe  the  effect  of  drying. 

We  see  that  sand  as  it  dries  does  not  stick  together,  and  clay 
as  it  dries  does  stick  together  and  also  sticks  to  other  objects. 
We  now  understand  how  it  is  that  wet  clay  is  sticky ;  it  clings 
to  the  plow  and  the  harrow  and  to  the  feet  of  the  horses  and 
is  hard  or  heavy  to  work.  Sandy  soil  is  said  to  be  light  and 
clay  soil  to  be  heavy,  not  because  of  their  weight,  but  be- 
cause the  former  is  easily  worked  and  the  latter  is  harder  to 
work.  If  we  watch  closely  the  drying  out  of  the  two  sets  of 
objects  that  we  have  moulded  we  shall  observe  further  that  the 
sand  dries  out  more  quickly  than  the  clay;  the  latter  holds  on 
to  the  water  longer.  Clay  soils  are  usually  wet  soils ;  they  are 
more  apt  to  have  water  in  them  than  sandy  soils. 

The  third  class  of  soils  is  usually  dark  in  color,  from  light 
brown  to  dense  black,  such  as  are  found  in  the  woods  where 
leaves  and  branches  have  decayed,  and  in  low  pastures  and 
swampy  places.  This  soil  is  made  up  of  the  refuse  of  leaves, 
branches  and  roots  of  plants.  Sometimes  we  can  see  pieces  of 
half-decayed  or  rotten  plants  ;  sometimes  there  are  very  slight 
traces  of  the  original  form  of  the  plants.  This  soil  has,  how- 
ever, all  come  from  former  plants.  We  call  such  a  soil  a 
vegetable  soil,  and  this  dark  colored  loose  material  formed  from 
the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  is  called  humus.  Notice  how 
it  differs  from  both  sand  and  clay.  It  is  light  in  weight  and 
easily  worked  and  it  holds  water  readily. 

Place  a  handful  of  swamp  muck  or  leaf  mould  (humus)  on  an  iron  fire- 
shovel  and  carefully  set  it  upon  the  burning  coals.  It  dries  out,  then  burns 
away  until  only  a  small  quantity  of  ash  is  left.  Place  some  wet  sand  on 
the  shovel  and  heat,  and  then  a  little  wet  clay.  What  is  the  result  ? 


NATURE   AND   ORIGIN   OF  THE  SOIL.  33 

These,  then,  are  the  three  principal  parts  of  soils — sand, 
clay,  and  humus,  but  in  many  cases  we  find  them  mixed 
together  or  one  above  the  other.  If  sand  is  the  principal  part 
of  the  soil  we  call  it  a  sandy  soil ;  if  clay,  a  clay  soil,  and  if 
humus  or  muck,  a  vegetable  soil.  A  loam  soil  contains  a  mix- 
ture of  sand  and  clay  with  some  humus,  and  such  a  soil  is 
usually  best  fitted  for  growing  most  of  the  crops  of  the  farm. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  SOIL. — We  already  know  where  the  humus 
or  vegetable  matter  has  come  from,  and,  as  it  was  formerly 
parts  of  plants,  we  conclude  at  once  that  it  must  contain  some 
material  for  feeding  new  plants.  But  where  did  the  sand  and 
the  clay  come  from  ? 

Perhaps  you  have  never  before  asked  that  question,  thinking 
that  the  clay  and  the  sand  were  always  in  the  field  in  that  form. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  although  they  may  have  been  there 
for  many  years,  perhaps  for  hundreds  of  years,  perhaps  for 
thousands.  Why  do  we  say  that  they  have  not  been  there 
for  all  time  ?  Well,  if  we  go  to  the  shore  of  a  large  lake  we 
see  fresh  sand  being  washed  up  day  by  day  by  the  waves.  If 
we  go  to  the  banks  and  mouth  of  a  large  river,  or  even  of  a 
small  stream,  we  see  sand  and  clay  and  vegetable  matter  being 
washed  down,  carried  away,  and  spread  out  to  form  new  layers 
of  soil.  If  we  go  to  the  face  of  a  high  rocky  cliff  we  can  see 
the  great  rocks  being  gradually  broken  down  and  changed 
into  piles  of  coarse  stone,  and  later  into  finer  material,  and  still 
later  into  sand  and  clay.  But  if  we  can  go  to  a  range  of 
mountains  or  high  hills  we  shall  see  more  clearly  the  change 
of  great  rocks  into  fine  soil. 

Under  our  soil  we  find  solid  rock.  In  some  places  the  rock 
is  at  the  surface,  and  we  can  see  it  becoming  weathered  and 
rotten.  The  outer  surface  is  softer  than  the  interior.  In  other 
places  the  rock  is  just  under  the  surface.  In  some  places  we 
have  to  go  very  deep  to  find  the  rock,  but  it  is  always  there,  to 
be  found  if  we  only  go  deep  enough.  All  of  our  sand  and 


34 


AGRICULTURE. 


clay  have  come  from  these  old  rocks,  sand  from  one  kind  of 
rock,  white  clay  from  another  kind  of  rock,  blue  clay  from 
another.  The  nature  of  the  soil  will  therefore  depend  largely 

upon  the  nature  of 
the  rock  from  which 
it  came.  This  sand 
or  clay  may  have 
come  from  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  rocks 
that  are  to  be  found 
just  under  the  soil ;  in 
that  case  the  soil  is 
likely  to  be  shal- 
low. But  usually  it 


Fig.  18  —Soil  formed  from  rock  underneath,     a  soil         has  COme   from 
with  grass    growing  in  it  ;    b  subsoil,  coarser  and 
more  rocky  ;  c  coarse,  loose  rock;  d  rock  in  layers,         at  3.    distance,  a    lon£f 
cracked,     d  changes  to  c,  c  changes  to  b,  and  b  to  a. 

distance   it   may  be, 

and  has  been  carried  to  its  present  place  by  water  and  ice,  and 
spread  out  over  the  old  rocks.  In  this  latter  case  the  soil  may 
be  very  deep  and  mixed.  We  can  now  explain  why  the;  soil 
^n  some  places  is  quite  different  in  its  nature  from  the  rocks 
under  it,  and  why  there  is  such  a  variety  in  the  same  locality 
and  on  the  same  farm.  One  field  may  be  clayey,  and  across 
a  stream  we  may  find  a  sandy  soil — they  have  come  from 
different  places,  and  have  been  washed  down  by  the  waters 
and  spread  out  at  quite  different  times. 

A  step  farther  back  can  now  be  taken.  We  go  to  the  hills 
-  to  the  great  piles  of  rock.  We  observe  that  the  old  rock  is 
weathered.  If  we  break  off  a  piece,  the  fresh  surface  shows  a 
different  appearance  from  the  old  weathered  surface ;  it  is 
generally  harder.  We  can  rub  off  some  of  the  old  weathered 
surface ;  what  we  rub  off  is  the  weathered  rock — fine  sand  or 
fine  clay.  We  observe  long  cracks  or  crevices,  some  narrow 
and  fine;  some  wide  and  deep.  The  rains  find  their  way  into 


NATURE    AND    ORIGIN    OF   THE    SOIL. 


35 


these  cracks  and  fill  them  up.  Then  winter  comes  on  and  the 
water  in  the  cracks  freezes.  What  will  happen  then  ?  Just 
what  happens  when  the  barrel  of  rain  water  freezes,  or  the 
down  pipes  on  the  house  freeze  solid,  or  the  bottles  of  canned 
fruit  in  the  cellar  freeze.  There  will  be  a  bursting.  And  even 
though  the  quantity  of  water  is  small,  it  must  expand,  the 
rocks  must  give  to  make  room  for  it.  The  cracks  are  made 
larger,  a  little  of  the  surface  is  broken  away,  or  a  huge  shoulder 
of  the  rock  is  burst  off.  Gradually, 
year  by  year,  the  rocks  are  thus 
broken  up  by  the  frost,  the  atmos- 
phere wears  them  away,  and  the  rains 
wash  them  down.  The  rocky  cliffs 
are  slowly  broken  down,  and  the 
ice,  as  it  slowly  moves  down  the 
sides  of  the  mountain,  scrapes  and 
scratches  off  more  and  more.  This 


Sad  bearing  -pvrti&i, 


Fie.  IQ  —Soil  formed  from  hill  rock  at  a  distance,  a  is  solid  rock  of  a  hill  or  mountain. 
Kock  at  c  has  l>een  broken  off  by  rain  and  frost  and  thrown  down  to  foot  of  bill  ; 
coarsest  rock  lies  in  heaps  forming  soilless  pirtio  i ;  finer  rock  has  been  carried  further 
down  where  some  plants,  as  trees  and  grass,  grow.  Finest  soil  IS  being  washed  into 
the  stream  to  be  carr  ed  away  aiid  spread  out,  farming  layers  of  soil  more  or  less  level, 
on  which  crops  are  grown. 

material  is  washed  away— the  larger  pieces  but  a  short  dis- 
tance, the  smaller  pieces  further,  and  the  finest  sand  and  clay 
carried  far  away,  to  be  dropped  or  spread  out  somewhere  to 
make  soil.  Seeds  are  dropped  by  the  birds  or  blown  by  the 
winds ;  some  plants  sprout,  grow,  die  and  decay,  and  form  a 


36  AGRICULTURE. 

little  humus.  More  plants  grow  and  more  humus  is  formed, 
until  out  of  the  material  that  came  from  the  hard  tough  rocks 
and  the  decay  of  roots  and  leaves  a  fine  soil  is  formed,  sandy 
in  one  place,  clayey  in  another,  and  loamy  in  another. 

CONCLUSIONS  : 

1.  All  our  soils  have  come  from  the  breaking  down  of  rocky 
material  and  the  decay  of  former  plants. 

2.  Soils  may  be  classed  as  follows  :    Sandy,  clay,  loam,  and 
vegetable  or  humus  soils. 

3.  The  texture  of  the  soil  depends  upon  the  amount  of  sand, 
clay,  and  humus  mixed  together  forming  it. 

4.  The  nature  of  the  soil  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the 
nature  of  the  rocks  out  of  which  the  sand  and  the  clay  have 
been  formed. 

5.  The  rocks  have  oeen  broken  up  by  the  action  of  the  air, 
the  freezing  of  the  rain-water  in  the  rocks,  the  grinding  of  ice, 
and  the  downrush  of  rains  and  streams. 

6.  Some  soils  have  been  carried  about  from  one  place  to 
another,  and  spread   out  by  ice,  snow,  streams,  and  even  to 
some  extent  by  the  wind. 

7.  Some  soils  have  been  formed  out  of  the  rocks  beneath 
them,  and  from  the  decay  of  plants  growing  upon  them. 

8.  Some  soils,  such  as  swamp  soils,  have  been  formed  almost 

entirely  from  the  decay  of  plants. 
SUGGESTIVE  : — 

\Yhatclassofplantsaremostusefulin  improving  the  soil,  those  with 
shallow  growing  roots  or  those  having  deep  growing  roots  ?  Have  you 
observed  any  difference  between  the  roots  of  clover  and  of  timothy  ? 


TILLING   AND    DRAINING   THE   SOIL.  37 


CHAPTER  IX. 


TILLING  AND  DRAINING  THE  SOIL. 

WEATHERING. — If  we  leave  a  piece  of  iron  exposed  to  the 
damp  air  it  soon  becomes  rusty  ;  if  we  keep  it  in  a  dry  place  or 
put  it  under  water  so  that  the  air  cannot  reach  it,  it  will  not 
become  rusty  so  soon.  Vegetables  left  in  a  damp  cellar,  or 
thrown  out  on  the  ground,  soon  decay.  Pieces  of  wood,  if  left 
long  enough,  will  rot  and  decay,  first  becoming  brown  and 
later  on  crumbling  to  a  fine,  black  substance,  the  same  as  the 
humus  of  the  soil.  Harder  substances,  such  as  bones,  will  in 
time  decay  and  wear  away.  An  old  brick  when  picked  up  is 
found  to  have  lost  its  sharp  corners  and  edges  and  to  have  be- 
come smaller  than  when  first  made.  As  we  examine  object 
after  object,  we  find  that  there  are  very  few  things  that  do  not 
become  changed  through  the  effect  of  the  air,  dew,  rain,  frost, 
snow,  and  ice.  In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  referred  to  the 
oxygen  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  air.  These  are  the 
two  substances  in  the  air  that  cause  many  of  the  changes— 
rotting  the  stumps,  charring  old  leaves  and  roots  and  branches, 
wearing  away  the  boulders  in  the  field,  and  dissolving  lime 
out  of  the  rocks. 

If  you  thrust  a  stick  into  the  coals  it  will  catch  fire  and  burn. 
Blow  out  the  blaze  and  you  have  a  charred  stick.  If  you 
throw  another  stick  of  the  same  kind  out  on  the  ground,  or 
bury  it  just  under  the  soil,  after  many  months  it  will  be  found 
to  become  brown  and  then  almost  black — it  has  become 
charred  also,  but  it  has  taken  a  long  time.  The  oxygen  of  thj 
air  has  burnt  up  some  of  it  in  both  cases.  If  we  go  to  an  old 

,'J(i.r>44O 


38  AGRICULTURE. 

limestone  bridge  where  the  rains  beat  upon  it,  we  notice  that 
where  the  water  trickles  down,  some  of  the  limestone  has  been 
washed  out,  and,  in  some  places,  long  stone  "  icicles  "  have 
formed.  The  limestone  has  been  dissolved  out  by  the  car- 
bonic acid  in  the  water.  Water  in  the  soil  contains  some 
carbonic  acid,  and  the  air  contains  carbonic  acid  gas ;  so  that 
we  have  in  this  an  explanation  of  the  hollowing  out  of  caves  in 
limestone  rocks,  the  breaking  down  of  limestone  cliffs,  and 
the  rapid  changes  that  take  place  in  limy  soils. 

EFFECTS  OF  DRAINING. — We  take  up  a  handful  of  vegetable 
soil — swamp  muck,  for  instance,  or  wood  mold — it  is  easily 
ground  up  between  the  fingers ;  there  does  not  appear  to  be 
much  rocky  or  sandy  material  in  it.  If  we  shake  it  up  in  a 
bottle  of  water,  we  find  that  the  water  becomes  more  or  less 
brown  in  color ;  some  of  the  substance  has  dissolved,  but  only 
a  little.  In  order  to  get  this  material  into  a  soluble  form,  the 
air  must  be  allowed  to  work  upon  it.  But  the  air  cannot  get 
into  it  unless  it  is  drained. 

Take  two  tin  cans  or  tight  boxes  ;  fill  one  with  wet  muck  from  an  un- 
drained,  swampy  field,  and  fill  the  other  with  dry  leaf  mold.  Plant  a  few 
seeds  of  the  same  kind  in  each,  and  observe  how  much  better  the  dry, 
well -aired  leaf  mold  is  for  the  growing  of  valuable  farm  plants  than  the  wet 
swamp  muck. 

Wet,  swampy  soil  needs  first  to  be  drained  and  then  to  be 
well  worked  over,  so  that  the  air  can  get  in  through  it  to 
weather  it  There  is  another  reason  for  letting  the  air  into  the 
wet,  swampy  soil,  and  that  is,  it  will  sweeten  it.  Vegetable 
soils  that  are  watec-logged  are  sour,  or  acid ;  and  seeds  will  not 
sprout  nor  plants  grow  well  in  sour  soils.  The  air  contains 
some  ammonia,  and  this,  when  it  gets  into  the  soil,  changes  it 
from  a  sour  to  what  we  may  call  a  sweet  soil — it  takes  the 
sourness  out  of  it  If  a  little  lime  be  scattered  over  the 
drained  soil,  this  sweetening  will  be  hastened. 

Then,  again,  wet,  swampy  soils  are  usually  cold,  because  of 
the  water  that  they  contain.  When  we  wish  to  cool  a  room  on 


TILLING   AND    DRAINING   THE   SOIL.  39 

a  hot  day,  we  sprinkle  the  floor  with  water.  As  this  water 
evaporates,  or  passes  off  into  the  air,  the  floor  becomes  cooler, 
and  that  cools  the  air  above  it.  We  may  look  upon  a 
swampy  field  as  a  great  room,  the  floor  of  which  is  the  soil. 
If  the  soil  is  kept  wet,  the  floor  of  this  field  will  be  kept  cold. 
Water  is  not  easily  warmed  up  or  heated.  A  dry  soil,  or  a  soil 
well  drained,  is  warmed  up  by  the  sun  more  easily  than  a  wet, 
undrained  soil. 

If  you  place  a  cup  (stoneware)  of  water,  a  cup  of  wet  sand,  and  a  cup  of 
dry  sand  on  the  top  of  a  warm  stove,  you  will  find  that  the  dry  sand  be- 
comes hot  much  more  rapidly  than  the  wet  sand,  and  the  wet  sand  much 
more  rapidly  than  the  water. 

Again,  if  you  wish  to  heat  a  pan  of  water,  or  to  boil  the 
kettle,  you  place  it  over  the  fire,  not  beside  the  stove,  nor 
under  the  stove.  The  sun  is  the  fire  that  heats  up  the  soil  and 
the  water  in  it,  and  it  is  above,  so  that  the  effect  of  heating  the 
water  in  the  soil  is  very  small. 

We  have,  then,  three  reasons  why  the  presence  of  too  much 
water  in  the  soil  keeps  the  soil  cold.  We  must  get  the  water 
out  of  the  soil  by  drainage,  so  that  we  can  thoroughly  work 
the  surface  of  the  soil ;  so  that  the  air  can  get  into  the  soil  to 
sweeten  it  and  help  the  decay  of  the  humus ;  and,  also,  so  that 
the  soil  can  become  warmed  up  early  in  spring  for  the  sprouting 
of  seeds  and  the  early  growth  of  the  plant. 

All  that  has  been  said  here  in  regard  to  humus,  or  mucky 
soils,  applies  also  to  sandy,  loam,  and  clay  soils,  except  that 
sandy  soils  are  not  so  much  in  need  of  special  drainage 
— in  most  cases  they  drain  themselves.  The  clay  soils,  when 
well  drained,  do  not  bake  upon  the  surface  as  they  dry  out, 
and  they  are  much  more  easily  worked.  The  stickiness  of 
clay  can  be  somewhat  overcome  by  the  use  of  lime. 

If  you  shake  up  some  clay  in  a  lx>ttle  of  water,  and  then  throw  in  some 
finely  powdered  lime,  you  will  ol>serve  a  peculiar  efTect  upon  the  fine  clay 
— it  will  become  flaky  or  coagulated  and  the  water  will  clear  up. 

The  thorough  drainage  of  clay  soils,  then,  is  most  important 


40  AGRICULTURE. 

to  get  the  water  out  and  to  let  the  air  in.  Then  thorough 
working  should  follow.  The  soil  is  plowed  up  in  ridges  in  the 
field,  every  furrow  straight  and  clean  cut,  glistening  in  the  sun 
like  metal  in  many  places.  But  when  the  frost  has  torn  it  to 
pieces  during  the  winter,  we  find  a  great  improvement  in  the 
texture  of  it  in  the  spring.  The  good  effects  of  plowing 
and  harrowing  will  not  appear  on  most  clay  soils  unless  the 
land  is  first  thoroughly  drained.  Drain  the  soil  and  let  the  air 
work  for  you,  breaking  up  the  coarse  particles  in  winter  and 
working  over  the  particles  in  summer  into  soluble  form  for 
plant  food.  Perhaps  you  do  not  realize  how  much  of  the  soil 
is  still  rocky  and  needs  to  be  worked  over. 

Take  a  deep  bottle  of  clear  water,  and  drop  a  handful  of  soil  into  it ; 
shake  it  up  a  little,  then  take  a  small  stick  and  slowly  stir  it.  The  heaviest 
pieces  will  settle  at  the  bottom,  the  smaller  above,  and  the  lightest  on  top. 
Notice,  now,  how  much  coarse,  stony  material  there  is  in  this  soil. 

Place  a  little  sand,  clay,  or  loam  soil  under  a  good  magni- 
fying glass,  such  as  is  used  for  examining  grain.  The  soil  looks 
like  a  pile  of  small  stones.  And  that  is  just  what  it  is — a  mix- 
ture of  fine  stones  with  vegetable  matter  or  humus  in  it.  These 
small  pieces  of  stone  came  from  the  great  masses  of  rock  on 
the  hillside.  How  did  they  come  to  be  so  broken  up  and 
worked  over  ?  The  air  got  at  them,  and  the  dews,  and  the 
rain,  and  the  frost.  Then  if  we  open  up  the  under-soil  by 
under-drainage,  and  thoroughly  open  up  the  surface  soil  by 
tillage  and  cultivation,  the  air  and  the  rain  and  the  dew  and 
the  frost  will  go  on  working  over  these  fine  stony  particles, 
forming  soluble  matter  that  can  go  in  through  the  roots  and 
feed  the  plant. 

Thorough  drainage  and  thorough  tillage — these  are  the  two 
main  points  in  improving  all  soils.  They  are  even  more  im- 
portant than  manuring.  This  word  manure  is  the  same  as 
manoeuvre,  which  means  to  "work  by  hand;"  the  draining  of 
the  soil  and  the  tilling  are  means  of  fertilizing  or  manuring. 


TILLING   AND    DRAINING   THE   SOIL.  4! 

Did  you  ever  notice  how  large  a  plant  the  flower  grower 
produces  in  a  small  pot  of  earth  ?  Examine  the  pot ;  it  is 
porous,  and  has  a  hole  in  the  bottom.  The  soil  is  well-drained 
and  the  air  can  get  in  among  the  roots  that  have  grown  so 
thickly  all  around  next  to  the  pot — close  to  the  places  where 
the  air  can  come  in. 

CONCLUSIONS: — Plowing,  digging,  harrowing,  and  other  means 
of  tilling  the  surface  soil  have  the  following  effects  : — 

1.  The  coarse  soil  is  broken  into  finer  particles. 

2.  The  soil  is  mixed,  rich  and  poor,  fine  and  coarse. 

3.  The  air  is  allowed  to  get  into  the  soil. 

4.  Growing  weeds  are  killed.     Weed  seeds  are  first  started 
growing  and  then  the  young  weed  plants  are  killed. 

5.  Insects  and  their  eggs  are  disturbed  and  destroyed. 

6.  Well-tilled  soils  do  not  suffer  from  drouth  so  much  as 
uncultivated  soils. 

Draining  the  soil  has  the  following  effects  : — 

1.  Standing  water  is  taken  out  of  the  soil ;  plants  will  not 
grow  in  stagnant  water  or  in  sour  soils. 

2.  Cold  soils  become  warmer  and  can  be  planted  early. 

3.  The  rains  can  go  into  the  soil,  instead  of  running  over 
the  soil  and  washing  away  the  fine  surface  soil. 

4.  The  air  can  get  into  the  sub-soil,  and  thus  rapidly  work 
it  over  into  matter  available  for  plants. 

5.  The  plants  root  deeper,  thereby  having  more  soil  from 
which  to  get  food,  and  a  better  chance  to  withstand  drouth. 

How  is  water  held  in  the  soil  ? 

What  is  free  water?  Is  the  plant  benefited  by  the  presence  of  large 
quantities  of  free  water  ?  The  remedy  is  a  good  system  of  drainage. 

What  is  understood  by  capillary  water  ? 

What  kinds  of  soils  contain  most  water  in  this  form  ? 

What  effect  has  deep  plowing  in  the  spring,  followed  by  frequent  shallow 
cultivation  during  summer,  upon  this  source  of  water  supply? 

What  is  the  effect  of  an  earth  mulch,  and  how  is  it  secured  ? 


42  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  X. 


IMPROVING  THE  SOIL. 

c  Feed  the  soil  if  you  would  have  the  soil  feed  you." 

EXHAUSTING  THE  SOIL. — Sometimes  we  see  a  very  heavy  crop 
of  corn,  oats,  barley  or  roots  grown  in  the  open  field.  In  such 
cases  we  generally  find  that  there  is  a  good  soil,  well-drained, 
and  that  the  season  has  been  very  favorable.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, we  find  much  larger  crops  grown  in  the  garden  of  the 
farmer,  and  still  larger  grown  in  the  little  plot  of  the  market 
gardener.  The  flower  grower,  however,  produces  still  heavier 
crops  in  his  small  pots  and  neat  beds.  If  we  observe  closely 
we  find  that  the  amount  of  the  crop,  its  size  or  weight,  and  its 
value,  increase  in  proportion  as  the  soil  is  well-drained,  well- 
tilled,  well-cleaned,  and  well-fertilized.  If  we  neglect  or  decrease 
the  draining  and  cultivating,  the  cleaning  and  the  enriching,  we 
know  the  crop  will  grow  less  year  by  year.  When  the  trees 
were  first  cut  down  and  the  fields  partially  cleared  large  crops 
were  grown  ;  the  soil  was  new  (virgin  soil  as  we  say);  it  contained 
a  large  amount  of  leaf  mold  that  had  been  accumulating  for 
centuries.  On  many  (arms  larger  crops  were  once  grown 
among  the  stumps  than  are  now  grown  on  the  cleared  field. 
Then  the  stumps  were  burned  out,  and  the  ashes,  rich  in  potash 
and  lime,  further  improved  the  soil.  In  some  cases  the  fields 
have  been  well-drained  and  well-cultivated,  and  year  by  year 
the  fields  have  been  fertilized  or  manured.  Such  farms  are 
still  very  productive.  But  we  all  know  what  are  called  run- 
down farms,  that  will  not  now  produce  heavy  crops  of  grain 
or  hay ;  they  were  once  the  same  as  the  first-class  farms,  they 
had  the  same  start.  Why  the  change  ?  Year  after  year  hay  and 


IMPROVING  THE   SOIL.  43 

grain  were  grown  and  taken  away  from  the  soil  and  nothing  was 
put  back.  These  crops  took  up  the  plant  food  out  of  the  soil. 
The  rich  soil  has  become  poor.  If  you  put  a  thousand  dollars  in 
the  bank  and  then  begin  to  draw  out  a  hundred  dollars  every 
year  and  put  nothing  in,  you  will  one  day  use  up  all  of  your 
money — your  bank  account  will  become  less  and  less,  and  you 
will  become  poor.  So  with  the  soil.  There  is  a  limited  amount 
of  plant  food  in  the  soil,  and  even  though  you  drain  and  work 
it  well,  if  year  by  year  you  take  away  from  it  and  put  nothing 
back  your  soil  will  in  time  become  poor.  Some  soils  are  richer 
than  others  and  therefore  will  not  become  run  down  so  soon. 
Now  let  us  consider  the  method  of  preventing  good  soils  from 
becoming  poor  and  of  making  poor  soils  richer. 

FALLOWING  THE  SOIL. — In  former  years,  before  the  great 
prairies  were  open  to  settlers,  the  farmers  of  Ontario  and  the 
Eastern  States  grew  wheat  as  their  principal  market  crop.  Its 
price  in  many  years  was  more  than  one  dollar  a  bushel.  The 
usual  practice  was  to  prepare  the  land  for  fall  wheat  by  a  bare 
faltuw.  The  soil  was  allowed  to  lie  idle  or  unproductive  for 
the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  the  season  preceding  the 
sowing.  It  was  plowed  from  time  to  time  and  harrowed. 
What  benefit  did  that  tilling  bring  ?  The  rains  fell  and  washed 
down  a  little  material  out  of  the  air.  This  will  be  seen  if  you 
contrast  rain  water  with  clear  spring  water — the  former  has 
been  changed,  something  has  been  taken  out  of  it  by  the  soil, 
and  something  else  given  to  it  by  the  soil.  The  soil  is  bene- 
fited by  rain  water  passing  through  it.  Then  some  ammonia 
might  get  into  the  soil  from  the  air.  Nothing  of  a  solid 
mineral  nature,  however,  such  as  potash,  or  soda,  or  lime,  or 
phosphates  could  get  into  the  soil  from  the  air,  simply  because 
they  are  not  found  in  the  air.  But  one  thing  could  be  done 
and  that  was  done,  namely,  the  air  could  get  into  and  through 
the  soil  and  help  weather  it  and  work  it  over  into  form  avail- 
able for  plant  food.  Bare  fallow,  then,  does  not  increase  the 


44  AGRICULTURE. 

material  of  the  soil,  it  merely  works  over  what  is  in  the  soil 
for  feeding  the  plant ;  it  can  not  and  does  not  prevent  the  soil 
from  becoming  worked  out.  Furthermore,  there  is  the  loss  of 
one  season's  crop,  and  if  the  soil  can  be  kept  in  good  condition 
and  a  crop  grown  at  the  same  time,  all  will  admit  that  the  latter 
should  be  done.  In  bare  fallowing,  however,  the  soil  is  more 
or  less  cleared  from  weeds  when  the  fallowing  is  thoroughly 
done.  But  weeds  can  be  cleared  out  by  other  means  than 
the  bare  fallow.  First  of  all  a  cultivated  crop  can  be  grown, 
such  as  corn  or  roots — the  constant  cultivating  required  during 
early  growth  will  clear  out  the  weeds.  Or  a  crop  can  be  put 
in  that  grows  quickly  and  that  covers  the  ground  well,  such  as 
clover,  buckwheat,  etc.  This  smothers  or  checks  the  young 
weeds,  and  the  green  growth  can  be  plowed  under  to  decay 
and  form  humus.  This  practice  is  called  green-manuring. 
In  green-manuring  there  is  less  water  lost  by  drainage  than  in 
bare  fallowing  and  hence  less  loss  of  soluble  plant  food.  In 
addition  everything  that  the  plant  takes  from  the  air  is  turned 
into  the  soil  and  the  amount  of  humus  is  thereby  increased. 
This  latter  result  is  very  beneficial  in  loosening  up  heavy  soils 
and  in  making  light  sandy  soils  more  loamy. 

FERTILIZING  THE  SOIL. — The  plant  gets  some  food  out  of 
the  air  through  its  green  leaves ;  the  water  comes  from  the 
rains  that  fall  on  the  soil  and  pass  in  through  the  roots ;  the 
mineral  matter  or  ash  comes  only  from  the  soil,  passing  into 
the  plant  through  the  roots  along  with  the  water.  The  air  is 
free  for  all  and  is  about  the  same  everywhere.  The  rains  and 
snows  are  largely  beyond  the  control  of  man,  except  as 
affected  by  the  cutting  away  or  growing  of  trees,  the  drainage 
of  the  land,  and  its  proper  cultivation.  But  as  for  the  soil  food, 
the  mineral  substances,  the  ash  compounds — these  must  be  in 
the  soil,  and  in  such  form  that  plants  can  take  them  up,  or  else 
no  crop  will  be  produced.  This  soil  food  is  mainly  compounds 
of  nitrogen  (nitrates,  such  as  saltpetre  or  nitrate  of  potash); 


IMPROVING   THE   SOIL.  45 

compounds  of  phosphoric  acid  or  phosphates,  such  as  we  find 
in  bones;  compounds  of  potash,  such  as  we  find  in  wood 
ashes;  compounds  of  lime,  of  iron,  of  magnesia,  etc.,  etc. 
Now  the  point  to  be  noted  here  is  that  the  plant  must 
have  every  one  of  these  compounds,  and  growth  will  not  take 
pla'ce  if  even  only  one  be  lacking.  Nearly  every  soil  contains 
lime ;  it  is  a  very  common  substance  in  rocks  and  soils,  there- 
fore we  do  not  need  to  supply  that  food.  Magnesia  and  iron 
are  quite  common,  and  much  of  either  is  not  required.  When 
we  feed  the  soil,  or  fertilize  it,  we  have  mainly  to  consider  this 
— whether  the  soil  needs  nitrogen,  phosphates,  or  potash. 
These  are  the  three  main  constituents  of  fertilizers,  and  they 
largely  fix  the  values  of  those  that  are  applied. 

When  we  apply  barnyard  manure  to  a  soil,  we  add  a  bulky 
fertilizer  that,  in  addition  to  increasing  the  plant  food,  has  an 
important  effect  upon  the  texture  of  the  soil.  For  instance, 
light,  sandy  soils  are  apt  to  be  poor  in  plant  food,  and  to 
be  too  loose  or  porous — the  rain  runs  through  them.  You 
notice  that  as  the  barnyard  manure  becomes  older  in  the  pile 
it  becomes  darker  through  changes  that  we  call  fermentation. 
This  dark  color  is  due  to  the  changing  of  the  straw  or  litter 
into  humus  ;  and  when  this  is  applied  to  the  light  soil  the  tex- 
ture of  the  soil  is  improved,  the  sandy  soil  becomes  more 
loamy.  When  applied  to  clay  soil  its  sticky  quality  is  more  or 
less  overcome,  and  the  heavy  clay  changes  towards  a  loose 
loam.  One  of  the  main  benefits  of  applying  barnyard  manure 
to  a  soil,  then,  lies  in  its  effect  upon  the  texture  or  physical 
quality  of  the  soil.  This  same  effect  is  produced  by  green 
manuring,  that  is  the  plowing  under  of  a  green  growing  crop 
such  as  clover,  tares,  rye,  or  buckwheat 

The  barnyard  manure  contains  compounds  of  nitrogen,  of 
potash,  and  also  phosphates,  so  that  in  it  we  apply  the  different 
kinds  of  food  that  plants  must  get  out  of  the  soil.  Barnyard 
manure  is  called  a  general  or  complete  fertili/er. 


46  AGRICULTURE. 

Soils  differ  as  to  their  composition ;  some,  such  as  mucky 
soils,  may  contain  plenty  of  nitrogen  but  not  enough  phosphate 
or  potash.  In  this  case  the  use  of  a  phosphate  such  as  ground 
bone,  or  of  potash  such  as  wood  ashes,  would  change  a  barren 
soil  into  a  fertile  soil.  Such  a  soil  as  a  light-colored  clay  may 
require  nitrogen  compounds  to  make  it  complete. 

Again,  a  soil  may  contain  plenty  of  food,  but  it  is  locked  up, 
it  is  unavailable ;  that  is,  it  is  not  soluble  or  in  form  ready  to 
be  taken  up  by  the  plants.  If  \ve  drain  and  cultivate  it  so  that 
the  air  can  get  in,  these  will  in  time  be  changed  into  soluble 
forms.  But  sometimes  we  can  hurry  up  or  assist  in  this  work, 
as  when  we  apply  land  plaster  (sulphate  of  lime)  to  a  soil 
bearing  clover,  salt  to  a  root  crop  or  to  grain,  and  quicklime  to 
to  a  heavy  clay  or  to  a  fresh  mucky  soil.  The  plaster,  salt,  and 
lime  are  not  direct  foods,  but  they  act  upon  the  constituents  of 
the  soil,  setting  free  potash  and  nitrogen  compounds. 

NITRIFICATION. — Wheat  and  other  cereals  take  up  their 
nitrogen  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of  nitrates.  These  are 
sometimes  supplied  in  fertilizers  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
Nitrate  of  potash,  or  saltpetre,  is  now  too  expensive  to  be  so 
used.  Humus  contains  nitrogen,  and  in  its  decay  forms 
nitrates,  especially  nitrate  of  lime.  The  change  from  the 
insoluble  forms  of  nitrogen  in  humus  to  the  soluble  nitrates  is 
brought  about  by  ferments.  These  are  minute  forms  of  plant 
life  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  eye.  Yeast  that  is  used  in 
fermenting  dough  is  a  ferment  somewhat  similar.  In  order  to 
do  their  work,  these  tiny  nitrate  ferments  in  the  soil  require 
warmth,  air,  and  moisture.  Humus,  of  course,  must  be  pre- 
sent. If  the  soil  is  sour,  they  will  not  work.  Good  drainage 
and  tillage,  therefore,  assist.  The  fermentation  of  the  manure 
pile  in  the  barnyard  is  brought  about  by  ferments.  Green- 
manuring  adds  material  for  making  nitrates,  and  barnyard 
manure  adds  not  only  humus  but  also  the  ferments.  The 
making  of  nitrates  in  the  soil  is  called  nitrification. 


IMPROVING  THE  SOIL.  47 

CONCLUSIONS  : — 

1.  All  of  our  soils  were  once  fresh,  unworked,  virgin  soil.    In 
many  cases  worn-out  soils  were  once  very  rich ;  they  have  been 
made  poor  by  over-cropping  and  little  fertilizing. 

2.  Many  soils  have  but  a  small  amount  of  mineral  food  in  a 
soluble  or  available  form. 

3.  Bare  fallowing  is  for  the  purpose  of  working  over  the 
hard,  rocky,  insoluble  portion  of  the  soil  into  soluble  form. 
This  is  done  by  frequent  plowing  and  harrowing,  thereby  letting 
the  air  in.     Weeds  also  are  sprouted  and  afterwards  killed. 

4.  Green-manuring  has  the  same  effect,  but  prevents  loss  of 
food  through  drainage,  and  increases  the  humus  of  the  soil. 

5.  The  three  substances  that  are  most  deficient  in  the  soil 
are  nitrogen  compounds,  phosphates,  and  potash. 

6.  The  value  of  a  fertilizer  consists  not  only  in  the  amount 
of  these  three  substances,  but  also  in  their  state  of  solubility. 

7.  Nitrogen  is  found  in  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
dried  blood,  guano, fish  refuse, etc.;  phosphates  in  bone  manures 
and  rock  phosphates  ;  potash  in  wood  ashes  and  potash  salts. 

8.  Barnyard  manure  is  a  general  fertilizer  supplying  all  three 
constituents.     Its  value  consists  largely  in  its  humus. 

9.  Quicklime,  land  plaster  or  gypsum,  and  salt  are  valuable 
as  fertilizers,  not  because  they  contain  plant  food,  but  because 
they  act  upon  the  soil,  setting  free  insoluble  plant  food. 

10.  Draining,  tilling,  and  airing  the  soil  are  necessary  for 
the  nitrification  of  humus,  or  the  making  of  nitrates  in  the  soil. 

SUGGESTIVE  : — 

Moisture  is  necessary  for  the  speedy  decomposition  of  green  crops  when 
plowed  under.  Might  a  soil  be  injured  for  a  while  by  turning  under  a 
crop  of  rye  during  a  dry  time  ? 

We  have  seen  that  fertilizers  must  be  dissolved  before  they  can  be  taken 
up  by  the  plant.  What  is  the  effect  of  pouring  water  over  a  pile  of  manure  ? 

Does  not  this  leaching  lessen  the  value  of  the  manure  ?  Is  it  not  desir- 
able, therefore,  to  prevent  this  loss  by  providing  a  cover  for  the  manure 
pile?  This  liquid  fertilizer  is  very  valuable. 


48  AGRICULTURE. 

PART  III. 
CHAPTER  XI. 


THE  GRASSES. 

NATURE  OF  GRASSES. — If  we  carefully  lift  a  slice  of  green 
growing  sod,  we  find  it  is  made  up  of  a  mat  of  grass  plants. 
We  pull  these  apart,  and  find  that  the  roots  are  all  fibrous.  If 
we  pull  up  a  wheat  plant,  we  find  it  also  has  a  fibrous  root. 
So  has  corn.  So  has  timothy.  Next  take  a  stalk  of  timothy. 
It  is  round  and  smooth  on  the  outside.  Cut  it  open.  It  is  full 
of  narrow  tubes  running  up  and  down.  There  are  some  hard 
joints  in  the  stem.  In  the  case  of  a  wheat  straw  you  find 
the  stem  hollow,  except  at  these  joints.  Now  observe  the 
leaves  of  the  green  timothy.  They  are  long  and  narrow  in  the 
blade.  Pull  this  blade  and  you  find  that  where  it  meets  the 
stem  it  is  wrapped  around  it,  forming  what  is  called  the  sheath. 
The  sheath  is  split  down  one  side  and  is  attached  to  the  stem 
at  one  of  the  joints.  Further,  notice  the  little  growth  on  the 
leaf  called  a  "  ligule."  The  leaf  then  consists  of  three  parts — 
the  blade,  the  sheath,  and  the  ligule.  From  the  structure  of 
the  stem  and  the  form  of  the  leaf  you  can  always  tell  a  true 
grass  from  other  plants,  such  as  the  sedges. 

By  comparing  the  following  plants  you  will  observe  that  they 
have  the  same  kind  of  stems  and  leaves,  and  therefore  they  are 
all  members  of  the  grass  family  (graminece): — the  common 
grasses  of  the  fields,  such  as  timothy,  orchard  grass,  June 
grass,  fescue ;  grain-producing  crops  such  as  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
barley,  corn,  millet ;  sugar-producing  crops  such  as  sugar-cane 
and  sorghum. 


THE   GRASSES. 


49 


Fig.  20  — Timothy,  also  called  Herds  Grass,  a  typical  hay  grass.  Figures  on  right  show 
the  blossoming.  B  is  a  single  spikelet  taken  from  a  head  or  spike.  It  shows  the  three 
stamens  and  the  two  stigmas  of  the  pistil.  In  a  blossoming  head  of  timothy  these 
stamens  may  be  seen  hanging  loose.  G  is  the  ovary  with  two  slender  styles,  /,  and 
two  feathered  stigmas—the  pistils  of  the  blossom.  Br  is  the  matured  or  ripened  spike- 
let  with  seed  inside;  A"  is  the  seed. 

When  a  grass  plant  grows  tall  and  produces  seed  or  grain 
large  enough  to  use  as  food,  we  allow  it  to  ripen  its  seed.  We 
use  the  seed  as  grain  and  the  leaf  and  stem  we  call  straw. 

When  a  grass  plant  grows  tall,  but  produces  very  small  seed, 
we  generally  cut  it  down  before  it  produces  seed.  We  then 
call  this  hay.  Such  grasses  are  timothy,  red-top,  orchard  grass, 
the  fescues,  the  foxtails,  brome  grass,  and  rye  grass. 


AGRICULTURE. 


When  a  grass  plant  does  not  grow  tall,  but  grows  short  and 
thick,  we  use  such  plants  for  pasture  grasses.  Such  grasses 
are  June  grass  and  Canadian  blue  grass. 


Fig.  21. — Kentucky  blue  grass  or  June  grass.    A  pasture  and  lawn  grass. 

The  best  way  to  study  the  different  grasses  is  to  study  them 
as  they  are  growing ;  you  will  then  find  out  how  many  there 
are  and  how  different  they  are  in  form  of  leaf  and  head,  in 
color,  and  in  their  habits  of  growing. 

BLOSSOMING  OF  GRASSES. — There  is  one  other  point  to  study 
in  grasses,  and  that  is  their  blossoming.  The  blossoming  of 
the  corn  plant  will  be  referred  to  in  the  next  chapter.  The 
blossoms  of  wheat  and  oats  are  much  like  those  of  timothy, 
shown  in  fig.  20.  The  grass  blossoms,  generally,  are  very 
small  and  are  not  very  bright  in  color,  we  are  therefore  likely 
to  overlook  them ;  but  every  grass  plant  blossoms  before  it 
forms  seed.  If  we  allow  the  timothy  to  stand  too  long  before 


THE   GRASSES. 


51 


cutting  it  becomes  woody ;  but  dusty  hay  is  caused  by 
the  pollen  from  the  blossoms  on  the  head.  Notice,  also,  that 
all  the  blossoms  on  the  timothy  head  do  not  come  out  at  the 


Fig.  22. — Illustration  showing  how  some  plants  reproduce  by  creeping 
roots,  i,  new  plant  just  coming  up  ;  2,  plant  before  blossoming  ;  3,  old 
plant  forming  seed.  June  grass  and  couch  grass  spread  in  this  way. 

same  time.  Some  are  a  little  later  than  others.  Because  of 
this  we  sometimes  hear  it  said  that  it  blossoms  twice,  but  this 
is  not  the  case.  Grasses  for  hay  are  generally  cut  just  after 
blossoming,  or  just  as  the  seeds  begin  to  form. 

Clo  /er  and  buckwheat  are  not  true  grasses.     Why  net  ? 

Why  are  foxtail  and  red-top  so  called  ? 

Which  grasses  have  branched  tops  and  which  spikes  ? 

What  is  meant  by  " seeding-down  "?  When  is  this  done.  Why  does 
not  the  grass  outgrow  the  grain  ? 

Explain  why  grasses,  such  as  June  grass,  arc  so  common.  Why  do  not 
wheat  and  corn  spread  ? 


52  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THE  GRAIN  CROPS  OR  CEREALS. 

The  principal  grain  crops  of  the  farm  are  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
rye,  corn,  buckwheat,  and  millet,  and  to  these  we  shall  briefly 
refer.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these  crops  also  may  be, 
and  frequently  are,  cut  green  and  fed  to  stock  before  the  grain 
is  formed,  especially  rye,  corn  and  millet.  Other  crops  also 
are  used  for  soiling,  such  as  clover,  peas,  and  tares  or  vetches. 

While  the  plant  is  growing  it  takes  in  food  from  the  air  and 
the  soil.  It  keeps  on  increasing  in  size  until  in  full  bloom.  Then 
the  seed  begins  to  form  from  the  blossom,  and  all  the  material 
that  goes  to  form  the  seed  is  taken  up  out  of  the  leaf,  stem, 
and  root,  where  it  has  been  stored  up.  During  all  this  time  of 
seed-forming,  very  little  plant  food  comes  in  through  the  root, 
so  that  when  the  seed  is  fully  formed,  the  leaves  and  stalk  and 
root  are  not  so  rich  or  nutritious  as  they  were  at  the  time  of 
blossoming.  From  this  you  will  see  why  it  is  that  straw  is  not 
so  rich  a  food  as  hay. 

WHEAT. — Wheat  is  sometimes  classed  according  to  its  color, 
red  and  white ;  sometimes  according  to  its  grain,  hard  and 
soft;  sometimes  according  to  its  chaff,  beaided  and  bald; 
sometimes  according  to  the  time  it  is  sown,  fall  or  winter,  and 
spring.  We  use  these  four  methods  in  describing  any 
variety  of  wheat.  Where  the  first  wheat  came  from  we 
do  not  know ;  but  wheat  taken  from  one  climate  to  another 
and  from  one  kind  of  soil  to  another  will  change  in  size,  form, 
and  general  appearance,  so  that  we  need  not  expect  to  find  the 
same  variety  of  wheat  always  appearing  exactly  as  described. 


THE  GRAIN  CROPS  OR  CEREALS.  53 

This  we  should  remember,  that  wheat,  like  every  other  kind  of 
grain,  must  be  carefully  selected  if  we  wish  to  keep  it  improved. 
We  can  even  change  a  winter  variety  to  a  spring  by  sowing 
gradually  earlier  year  by  year;  and  we  can  change  a  spring 
variety  to  a  fall  variety  by  sowing  gradually  later  year  by  year. 

Get  a  head  of  bearded  wheat ;  take  it  to  pieces,  and  observe  the  long 
beards,  what  they  are  and  how  attached.  Compare  with  the  beards  of  a 
barley  head.  Are  the  beards  on  the  grain  ? 

The  grain  of  wheat  is  made  up  of  several  parts,  the  three 
principal  parts  being — first  the  outer  skin  or  the  bran  coatings, 
second  the  white  flour  portion,  and  third  the  little  yellow  germ 
at  one  end.  This  germ  is  the  living  part  of  the  grain,  the  flour 
is  the  food  stored  up  for  feeding  it  in  its  early  growth,  and  the 
bran  is  the  covering  or  cloak.  If  we  grind  up  the  whole 
grain  we  get  whole-wheat  flour.  By  the  old  stone  milling  pro- 
cess the  bran  alone  was  separated  from  the  rest.  By  the  new 
process  the  grain  is  divided  mainly  into  three  parts,  namely  the 
bran,  the  white  flour,  and  the  bluish  or  greyish  germ  flour. 

Place  several  grains  of  wheat  in  your  mouth  and  chew  them. 
Gradually  you  separate  and  swallow  part  of  the  wheat — that  is 
the  starch ;  you  will  have  left  in  your  mouth  a  gummy  sub- 
stance— that  is  the  gluten.  The  gluten  is  the  richest  part  of 
ihe  flour ;  it  is  what  gives  it  its  strength. 

RYE. — In  some  countries  of  Europe  rye  takes  the  same 
place  that  wheat  does  in  America,  it  is  the  great  flour-produc- 
ing crop.  As  with  wheat  it  is  sown  both  in  the  fall  and 
in  the  spring.  It  is  very  hardy  and  can  be  grown  even  on  very 
poor  soils.  With  us  it  is  sometimes  sown  in  the  fall  to  be  cut 
early  in  the  summer  as  a  soiling  crop.  The  grain  is  longer 
than  that  of  wheat  and  its  flour  is  quite  dark. 

OATS. — The  oat  plant  furnishes  a  most  important  food  forman 
as  well  as  for  horses  and  other  animals.  Oats  are  generally  classed 
according  to  their  color.  The  head  is  branched  and  the  grains 
are  covered  with  a  coarse  loose  husk,  hence  its  light  weight. 


54  AGRICULTURE. 

This  grain  will  grow  in  poorer  soil  than  wheat  and  much 
further  north.  It  is  a  rather  hearty  and  gross  feeder  and 
produces  very  large  crops  on  rich  soil. 

BARLEY. — This  grain  is  classed  as  two-rowed,  four-rowed 
and  six-rowed,  according  to  the  number  of  rows  of  kernels  in 
the  head.  The  two-rowed  requires  a  longer  season  of  growth 
than  the  six-rowed,  which  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly  growing 
and  maturing  grains  that  we  have.  Barley  is  used  as  a  food 
for  stock,  and  also  for  the  making  of  malt  out  of  which  beer  is 
brewed.  Its  value  for  malting  depends  upon  the  soil  and 
climate.  It  must  be  of  bright  color,  well  filled,  and  all  ripened 
so  that  it  will  sprout  evenly  in  malting. 

CORN  OR  MAIZE. — In  Great  Britain  the  name  corn  is  applied 
to  either  wheat  or  any  bread-producing  cereal,  in  North  America 
it  means  Indian  corn  or  Maize.  The  distinction  is  made  of 
sweet  corn  which  is  used  for  food  by  man,  and  common  corn, 
which  again  is  divided  into  flint  and  dent.  Flint  corn  ha.s  a 
hard  flinty  kernel,  and  dent  has  the  indented  form  on  the  tip 
of  the  grain.  The  roots  are  long  and  therefore  the  plant  feeds 
quite  deeply  and  requires  a  soil  of  deep  cultivation.  It  has 
long  heavy  leaves  and  thick  stalks,  not  hollow  like  the  previous 
grains,  but  more  or  less  filled.  It  bears  heavy  ears  and  pro- 
duces large  quantities  of  food  per  acre.  We  at  once  conclude 
that  it  takes  much  more  food  from  the  soil  than  the  others,  that  it 
is  a  heavy  feeder  and  requires  heavy  manuring.  When  well 
cultivated,  it  is  a  good  cleaning  crop. 

The  blossoming  of  the  corn  is  worth  noticing.  Fine  silky 
threads  may  be  seen  hanging  from  the  end  of  the  green  ear,  all 
attached  to  the  cob — these  are  the  "styles,"  the  female  portion 
of  the  blossom.  At  the  top  of  the  stalk  is  "  the  tassel "  which 
carries  the  stamens  or  male  portion  of  the  blossom.  The  pollen 
from  these  falls  down  upon  the  pistils  of  the  ear  and  there 
completes  the  blossoming.  If  different  varieties  of  corn  are 
planted  near  together  the  pollen  from  the  tassels  of  one  variety 


THE  GRAIN  CROPS  OR  CEREALS.  55 

may  be  carried  by  the  wind  or  by  insects  to  the  silky  pistils  of 
another,  and  thus  produce  the  peculiar  kernels  that  are  some- 
times seen  on  ears  of  corn.  In  growing  corn  for  seed,  there- 
fore, it  is  necessary  to  grow  each  kind  by  itself,  far  from  any 
other  variety. 

There  are  various  ways  of  growing  corn.  It  may  be  sown 
broadcast,  when  the  plants  grow  close  together  and  cover  the 
entire  soil.  In  this  case  the  plants  do  not  have  sunlight  upon 
the  lower  leaves  and  the  stalks,  and  as  a  result  the  plants  do 
not  mature,  and  production  of  ears  is  prevented.  The  crop 
consists  entirely  of  leaf  and  stalk,  and  is  cut  and  used  just  as 
we  cut  and  use  timothy  hay.  The  effect  of  the  lack  of  sun- 
light is  seen  also  in  the  pale  yellow  color  of  the  under  leaves. 
T»he  stalks  and  the  leaves  are  quite  watery,  and  the  amount 
of  food  per  acre  is  less  than  is  got  by  the  other  methods.  If 
ears  are  desired  the  corn  must  be  sown  in  rows  or  in  hills  far 
apart;  the  taller  the  corn  the  farther  apart  must  be  the  drills  or 
hills.  A  method  adopted  by  many  western  corn-raisers  is  that 
known  as  "  listing."  The  corn  is  grown  in  furrows,  which  are 
gradually  filled  in  as  the  corn  grows  higher.  Just  above  the 
surface  of  the  soil  a  ring  of  suckers  shoots  out  from  near  the 
joint  or  node,  and  as  the  earth  comes  up  to  them  these  take 
root.  In  this  way  the  corn  becomes  deep  rooted,  is  held  firmly 
in  place  and  is  able  to  withstand  drouth. 

A  great  deal  of  valuable  information  can  be  learned  by  care- 
fully watching  the  growth  of  different  kinds  of  corn  in  the  field. 
From  what  part  of  the  stalk  do  the  ears  grow  ?  What  is  the 
effect  of  cutting  off  part  of  the  tassels  ?  What  is  the  effect 
of  cutting  off  all  the  tassels  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  re- 
moving the  smaller  ears  and  leaving  only  the  larger  ?  What 
is  the  effect  of  cutting  away  all  the  corn  for  about  eight  feet  on 
every  side  of  a  single  hill  or  stand  ? 

SUGAR  CANE. — This  plant,  like  corn,  has  a  stalk  whose  tubes 
are  filled  with  a  juice  rich  in  sugar.  New  plants  are  started 


56  AGRICULTURE. 

from  "  cuttings."  Its  stalks  grow  from  one  to  two  inches  thick 
and  from  eight  to  twenty  feet  high.  It  is  cut  before  flowering 
and  the  juice  pressed  out.  This  juice  is  evaporated  and  a 
dark  brown  sugar  remains,  from  which  the  white  sugar  is  got 
by  "refining." 

SORGHUM. — This  has  pithy  stalks  like  maize  and  sugar  cane. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  it,  one,  Indian  Millet  or  doorha, 
is  grown  extensively  in  Eastern  countries  for  its  grain  for  bread 
making ;  another  is  grown  for  its  sugar  or  syrup,  also  as  food 
for  stock ;  and  still  another  (broom  corn)  for  its  tassels,  out  of 
which  the  whisks  of  brooms  are  made.  The  broom-corn  tops 
are  cut  off  while  still  slightly  green  and  are  dried  in  dark 
buildings,  where  they  partially  bleach  out. 

These  three  members  of  the  grass  family,  maize,  sugar  cane 
and  sorghum,  are  then  distinguished  from  the  other  grasses,  in 
having  their  stalks  filled,  and  all  contain  a  considerable  quantity 
of  sugar  in  their  juices.  Sugar  cane  grows  only  in  very  warm 
climates,  sorghum  is  found  farther  north,  and  maize,  although 
originating  in  Mexico  or  Central  America,  will,  in  some  of  its 
varieties,  mature  its  grains  much  farther  north. 

RICE. — This  is  the  great  bread  food  of  China  and  Japan, 
and  is  best  grown  in  lands  that  are  mild  in  climate  and  are 
capable  of  irrigation.  The  land  is  prepared  as  for  grain.  The 
rice  is  sown  in  drills  and  covered  with  about  two  inches  of  soil. 
Then  the  water  is  let  on  to  a  depth  of  12  to  18  inches.  After 
standing  for  four  to  six  days  it  is  drawn  off  and  the  plants 
allowed  to  get  a  good  start ;  water  is  again  let  in  for  a  time  and 
then  drawn  off  before  harvesting.  The  growing  of  rice  upon  wet 
soils  gives  us  the  explanation  for  the  scriptural  teaching  :  "  Cast 
thy  bread  upon  the  waters,  for  thou  shalt  find  it  after  many 
days."  (Eccl.  xi.  i.) 


THE    LEGUMINOUS   PLANTS. 


57 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS. 

NATURE  OF  LEGUMES. — Plants  such  as  wheat  and  barley 
were  formerly  cut  with  a  sickle ;  the  pods  of  such  as  peas  and 
beans  were  gathered  by  hand ;  hence  the  latter  were  known  as 
legumes,  from  the  Latin  lego,  "I  gather."  All  plants  resembling 
peas  and  beans  in  their  botanical  nature  were  called  the  legum- 
inous plants.  They  were  also  called  pulse  because,  as  some 
say,  of  their  being  pulled  or  plucked.  The  most  striking 
resemblance  is  in  the  blossom.  The  seeds  are  formed  in  pods 


Fig.  23. —  I'.lossom  of  a  legume  as  of 
pea,  bean,  or  flowering  locust  tree.  . 

Fig.  24.—  Rlossom  of  legume  taken 
apart,  showing  five  leaves  of  corolla. 
Upper  larue  leaf  is  the  "  standard," 
the  two  lower  the  "keel,"  the  two 
side  the  "wings."  The  pistils  and 
stamens  are  enclosed  in  the  keel 
leaves. 


Fig.  24. 


or  legumes  of  different  shapes  in  different  plants.  In  some  of 
the  members  of  the  leguminous  family,  the  blossoms  and  pods 
are  too  small  for  us  to  observe  readily  their  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  pea  and  bean  ;  but  a  careful  study  of  the  roots, 
leaves,  and  blossoms  of  the  following  plants  will  soon  prove 
that  they  are  all  quite  alike.  They  are  all  legumes  with  which 
we  should  be  familiar. 
5 


AGRICULTURE. 


LEGUMINOUS  FAMILY  (Leguminosce). 
Common  pea.  Common  red  clover, 

Common  string  bean,  White  or  Dutch  clover, 

Lima  bean,  Alsike  or  Swedish  clover, 

Horse  or  Windsor  bean,  Crimson  or  scarlet  clover, 

Common  vetch  or  tare,  Mammoth  red  clover, 

Common  lentil,  Lucerne  or  alfalfa, 

Lupines,  Peanut  or  ground  nut. 

From  this  list  of  plants  we  see  that  the  family  is  large  and 
important.  In  addition  there  are  many  weeds  belonging  to 
this  same  family.  To  speak  of  clovers  as  being  grasses  is  bot- 

anically  incorrect,  since  in 
form  or  shape  and  in  mode 
of  growth  they  are  entirely 
different.  The  most  notice- 
able difference  is  in  the 
shape  of  blossoms.  The 
leaves  also  are  different  in 
shape  and  in  arrangement. 
Contrast  a  plant  of  clover 
with  a  plant  of  timothy  or 
wheat.  The  stalks  also  are 
different,  and  the  roots  are 
quite  different.  Pull  up  a 
large  red  clover  or  pea  plant, 
and  also  a  wheat  plant,  and 
contrast  their  roots.  Which  is  the  more  fibrous  and  matted?  The 
clovers  send  their  roots  deeper  into  the  soil.  Observe,  also,  the 
little  knots,  or  balls,  or  tubercles  on  the  clover  roots.  These 
tubercles  play  a  very  important  part  in  the  nourishment  of  the 
leguminous  plants.  They  are  filled  with  many  little  living 
parasites,  something  like  yeast  cells,  that  grow  and  feed  upon 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air,  from  it  forming  compounds  that 
help  to  nourish  the  plants.  Now  we  have  already  mentioned 


Fig.  35 — Root  of  a  legume  showing  knots 
or  nodules  or  tubercles. 


THE   LEGUMINOUS   PLANTS.  59 

that  wheat,  for  instance,  will  readily  feed  upon  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  nitrates  ;  but  if  we  apply  nitrates  to  clover  no  effect  is 
produced.  The  wheat  cannot  take  up  the  free  nitrogen  of 
the  air,  but  the  clover  can,  through  these  root  tubercles. 
Sometimes  clover  does  not  grow  well;  and  when  pulled  up 
very  few,  if  any,  of  these  little  tubercles  are  found  upon  the 
roots.  If,  however,  some  soil  in  which  clover  has  been  growing 
well,  or  the  washing  from  such  soil,  is  applied  to  the  weak 
clover,  the  plants  soon  begin  to  thrive  and  the  tubercles  are 
seen  growing  upon  the  roots.  These  tubercles  possess  the 
power  of  taking  up  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  the  soil.  If 
we  can  get  leguminous  plants  to  grow  in  a  poor  soil  and  then 
turn  them  under,  they  will  decay  and  produce  humus  rich  in 
nitrogen  that  will  give  rise  to  nitrates  (by  nitrification)  for  the 
benefit  of  the  wheat  or  other  grain  crop  that  comes  after.  The 
seeds  from  all  leguminous  plants  are  very  rich.  Then  we  can 
state  the  following  as  the  valuable  points,  in  connection  with 
leguminous  plants  : — 

1.  They  have  many  leaves  and  are  good  for  fodder. 

2.  Their  seeds  are  very  rich  in  food  material. 

3.  Their  roots  are  generally  long,  therefore  deep  feeders. 

4.  They  take  up  free  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  are  therefore 
easier  on  the  soil  than  are  cereals  or  root  crops. 

PEAS  are  generally  grown  for  the  seed,  which  is  very 
rich  in  nitrogen  and  in  oil.  The  many  varieties  grown  for 
man  and  stock  are  classed  as  garden  peas  and  field  peas.  The 
straw  is  richer  than  that  of  the  grain  crops.  When  grown  to 
be  cut  green  for  soiling,  peas  are  generally  sown  with  oats. 

BEANS  are  grown  in  this  country  for  the  seed,  planted 
in  hills,  as  a  garden  crop,  or  as  a  field  crop  with  good 
garden  cultivation.  Some  of  the  varieties,  as  the  horse  bean, 
require  a  fairly  mild  climate.  Some  are  short  and  bushy, 
others  are  tall  climbers.  Examine  their  means  of  climbing. 


60  AGRICULTURE. 

VETCHES  OR  TARES  have  smaller  pods  and  seeds  than  peas, 
and  are  grown  for  soiling  along  with  oats.  The  stiff  stalks  of 
the  oats  help  to  support  the  slender  vines  of  the  tares. 

COMMON  RED  CLOVER  is  also  known  as  broad  leaf  clover 
or  trefoil.  The  peculiar  light  spot  on  the  leaves  and  the 
closeness  of  the  upper  leaves  to  the  head  are  to  be  noted.  It 
grows  to  two  feet  in  height,  and  the  roots  penetrate  the  soil 
deeply.  While  in  some  localities  it  is  a  perennial,  in 
most  temperate  regions  it  is  a  biennial.  Its  form  and 
mode  of  growth  adapt  it  for  hay  rather  than  for  pasture.  It 
ripens  about  the  same  time  as  orchard  grass  and  about  two 
weeks  earlier  than  timothy.  It  should  be  cut  before  the  heads 
become  very  brown ;  if  left  too  late  its  leaves,  which  form  a 
large  part  of  it,  become  brittle  and  drop  off  in  handling.  After 
being  cut  once  the  plants  rapidly  grow  up  again,  giving  a  second 
crop,  the  aftermath  or  rowen.  The  depth  to  which  its  roots  go 
depends  greatly  upon  the  state  of  the  soil ;  therefore  the  soil 
should  be  well  drained.  When  the  sod  is  turned  over,  large 
quantities  of  humus,  rich  in  nitrogen,  are  left  near  the  surface 
for  the  wheat  or  other  grain  crop  following.  A  variety  of  red 
clover  is  known  as  mammoth  clover. 

WHITE  OR  DUTCH  CLOVER  is  a  low  growing  plant,  with 
creeping  stems  and  white  blossoms  It  is  very  hardy  and  apt 
to  crowd  or  smother  out  other  plants.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  plants  in  pasture  fields,  and  is  especially  valuable  for 
sheep  and  cattle.  It  is  usually  sown  with  grass  seeds  in 
permanent  pasture  mixtures. 

ALSIKE  OR  SWEDISH  CLOVER  is  a  perennial  with  pink 
blossoms,  growing  about  two  feet  high.  It  thrives  in  cool 
climates.  It  does  not  give  such  heavy  yields  as  red  clover, 
but  is  specially  adapted  for  hay  fields  that  are  to  be  kept  for 
several  years.  It  is  sometimes  sown  along  with  other  seeds  for 
pastures. 


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THE    LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  6l 

CRIMSON  OR  SCARLET  CLOVER  grows  further  south  than  the 
others,  has  a  long  scarlet  head  and  makes  an  early  rapid  growth 
even  on  poor  land.  It  is  a  hay  plant.  In  some  places  it  is 
used  as  a  "catch  crop,"  that  is  it  is  grown  on  land  after  the 
removal  of  grain  crops,  for  a  light  forage  crop  or  to  be  plowed 
under  as  a  green  manure. 

LUPINES  include  a  number  of  little  shrubby  plants 
that  bear  very  showy  flowers.  The  plants  are  apt  to  be  too 
woody  for  forage,  but  sheep  readily  eat  them.  Their  principal 
use  in  this  country  is  for  plowing  under  as  green  manure,  since 
being  leguminous  they  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  most 
common  are  white,  yellow,  and  blue  lupines. 

LUCERNE  OR  ALFALFA  is  a  plant  resembling  clover  in  its 
growth.  It  is  not  strictly  a  clover,  although  sometimes  called 
Spanish  clover.  It  is  difficult  to  start  upon  land,  but  once  well 
started  it  is  long  continued,  being  a  deep-rooted  perennial.  It 
has  a  smaller  leaf  than  clover  and  a  purple  head,  more  open. 
It  is  somewhat  bushy  and  sends  its  roots  as  deep  into  the  soil 
as  the  water  level  will  allow.  For  this  reason  it  resists  drouth. 
It  must  be  cut  early  or  it  will  produce  a  very  coarse  woody 
hay.  In  mild  climates  it  may  be  cut  for  hay  several  tmies 
during  the  year. 

THE  PEANUT  is  an  annual,  growing  in  warm  climates  on 
light  soil.  Other  names  for  the  plant  are  earth-nut,  ground-nut, 
goober.  Though  not  a  nut  its  pod  is  somewhat  like  a  nut  and 
it  belongs  to  the  pea  family.  The  seeds  are  very  oily,  giving 
an  oil  used  for  soap  making. 


62  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


ROOT  CROPS  AND  TUBERS. 

NATURE  AND  GROWTH  OF  ROOTS. — If  we  place  some  seed 
of  the  turnip  or  beet  in  the  ground  in  early  summer,  we  find  a 
plant  sprouting  up  that  has  broad  thick  leaves.  The  root  is 
tapering,  sometimes  quite  long,  and  has  fine  rootlets  growing 
on  the  sides.  Towards  the  end  of  the  season  the  leaves  wither, 
change  color,  and  die.  When  we  pull  up  the  root  we  find  a 
thick  mass  of  juicy  substance  that  is  relished  much  by 
animals.  This  turnip  or  beet  root  has  not  finished  its  life- 
work  as  a  plant,  since  it  has  not  yet  produced  any  seed  or  any 
new  plants  like  itself.  If  we  leave  it  in  the  ground,  or  if  we 
take  good  care  of  it  through  the  winter  so  as  to  keep  it  cool 
and  unbruised,  and  plant  it  in  the  early  summer,  it  will  begin 
to  grow  again.  A  new  growth  will  appear  above  the  soil,  a 
stalk  will  be  formed  and  seed  be  produced  of  the  same  kind  as 
that  which  we  sowed  in  the  first  place.  If  we  again  pull  up 
the  plant,  we  find  the  thick  fleshy  root  has  become  very  thin 
and  fibrous,  and  is  of  no  use  as  food  for  stock.  We  conclude 
that  these  plants  are  biennials ;  that  during  the  first  season 
they  store  up  large  quantities  of  food  in  their  root,  and  that 
this  food  in  the  root  nourishes  the  plant  during  the  second 
season.  Since  they  have  a  whole  season  to  gather  food,  we 
find  that  the  weight  per  acre  greatly  exceeds  that  of  many  crops 
that  are  annuals,  and  they  take  a  large  quantity  of  material  out 
of  the  soil.  These  plants  are  heavy  feeders.  By  keeping  the 
soil  well  cultivated  we  destroy  the  weeds,  keep  the  soil 
moist,  and  help  the  action  of  the  roots.  The  roots  are  very 
watery  and  contain  large  quantities  of  the  substances  that  are 


ROOT   CROPS    AND   TUBERS. 


first  formed  in  plants,  namely  sugar  and  starch.  The  materials 
that  are  taken  from  the  soil  through  the  roots,  and  that  which 
passes  in  from  the  air,  are  worked  over  in  the  green  leaves,  so 
that  while  green  we  would  expect  to  find  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  mineral  or  soil  material  in  the  leaves.  Any  green  leaves 
that  are  cut  from  the  roots  when  they  are  pulled,  therefore, 
should  be  left  on  the  soil  where  the  roots  grew,  so  as  to  help 
keep  up  the  richness  of  the  soil.  The  roots  keep  on  growing 
during  the  fall  until  the  weather  becomes  very  cold,  therefore 
they  have  a  good  chance 
to  benefit  by  the  nitrates' 
that  are  formed  during 
the  latter  part  of  summer. 
They  have  the  advantage 
of  spri  ng-so wn  grain 
crops  in  this  regard. 
Since  root  crops  are  such 
heavy  feeders,  and  since 
the  ground  should  be 
kept  thoroughly  cultivat- 
ed during  their  growth, 
they  are  generally  used 
as  the  crop  to  which  the 
largest  quantity  of  barn- 
yard manure  is  applied. 
In  addition  to  heavy 
manuring,  another  very 
important  necessity  is 
thorough  cultivation  of 
the  soil  before  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  The  root  is  thick  and 
compact ;  it  has  to  push  down  and  out  on  all  sides.  If  it  can- 
not go  straight  down  it  will  twist  about  or  push  itself  partly  out 
of  the  ground.  For  well  shapen  and  perfect  roots,  then,  we 
must  have  a  well-tilled  and  well-drained  soil. 


Fig.  26. — Sugar  beet  on  left  grown  in  good 
soil,  well  drained  and  well  cultivated  ;  beet  on 
right  grown  in  rough  soil. 


64  AGRICULTURE. 

THE  TURNIP  belongs  to  what  is  known  as  the  mustard 
family  (Crucijertz).  The  principal  members  of  this  family  are 
the  turnip,  the  radish,  the  cabbage,  rape,  cultivated  mustard, 
horseradish ;  the  weeds,  wild  mustard  or  charlock,  shepherd's 
purse,  and  wild  flax ;  the  flowers,  stocks  and  candy  tuft.  The 
flowers  of  all  these  plants  have  4  petals  spread  out  in  the 
shape  of  a  cross — hence  the  name,  cruciferce. 

THE  CARROT  is  a  plant  whose  varieties  differ  greatly  in 
shape,  size,  and  color.  Celery  and  the  parsnip  belong  to  the 
same  family.  The  blossom  resembles  the  stays  of  an  um- 
brella ;  hence  the  name — umbelliferce — applied  to  this  family. 
The  shape  of  the  root,  differing  from  that  of  the  turnip, 
suggests  that  the  plant  goes  deep  and  therefore  requires  a 
soil  loose  and  open  and  deeply  cultivated. 

THE  BEET  belongs  to  still  another  family,  the  goose- 
foot  family.  The  original  of  this  root  was  a  wild  plant  of 
Southern  Europe.  Gradually  it  has  been  improved,  the  root  has 
been  enlarged  and  the  composition  changed,  until  now  we  have 
several  very  valuable  plants  whose  roots  are  widely  used.  The 
mangel-wurzel  or  mangel  is  one  variety,  grown  for  stock  feed- 
ing. The  sugar  beet  is  another,  grown  for  its  sugar.  Mangels 
when  grown  on  rich,  well-cultivated  soils  produce  enormous 
yields  per  acre.  They  may  be  kept  stored  for  late  feeding. 

The  sugar  beet  is  a  good  example  of  what  can  be  done  by 
way  of  improving  plants.  In  its  wild  state  the  beet  had  very 
little  sugar  that  could  be  extracted.  By  cultivation  it  was  found 
that  the  quantity  of  sugar  increased.  Suppose  we  take  a  field 
of  common  white  beets  and  select  the  most  perfectly  shaped 
roots  of  about  i^  or  2  pounds  each,  and  plant  them  and 
then  select  the  best  seed  from  these  and  sow  this  seed.  We 
pick  out  the  best  beets  from  that  crop.  Then  by  testing  small 
pieces  of  the  roots  we  find  out  which  have  the  largest  amount 
of  sugar,  and  plant  them.  We  keep  on  in  this  way  for  several 
years  ;  we  find  that  at  last  we  get  seed  that  will  produce  beets 


ROOT  CROPS  AND  TUBERS.  65 

that  are  clear-skinned,  nicely  tapering,  having  a  large  amount 
of  sugar  and  a  small  amount  of  ash  material.  We  could  thus 
develop  beets  good  for  sugar  making,  whose  nature  it  is 
to  produce  sugar.  In  this  way  the  sugar  beets  have  been 
developed,  and  in  this  way  the  seedsmen  are  still  producing 
improved  seed.  To  grow  good  sugar  beets  the  soil  must  be 
well-drained  and  well-tilled,  the  plants  must  be  grown  closer 
together  than  when  grown  for  feeding  stock,  and  the  roots  must 
be  kept  well  covered,  since  the  sugar  is  stored  in  the  part 
under  the  soil.  Any  green  collar  on  the  beets  will,  like  the 
green  leaf,  have  too  much  mineral  matter.  The  beets  are  taken 
to  the  factory,  cleaned,  pulped  fine,  the  juice  extracted,  and 
the  sugar  obtained  from  it  by  evaporation.  Sugar,  like 
butter,  is  made  up  from  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  which 
come  from  the  air  and  the  rain  ;  so  that  if  the  leaves  are  left 
in  the  soil,  and  the  pulp  taken  back  and  fed  on  the  farm  there 
is  little  or  nothing  lost  from  the  soil. 

THE  POTATO  is  here  included  among  the  roots,  and  yet  we 
all  know  it  is  quite  different  in  form  and  growth  from  the 
beet  and  the  carrot.  We  do  not  sow  seeds,  but  potatoes 
or  parts  of  potatoes  ;  the  method  of  growth  under  ground 
is  peculiar ;  and  the  branching  tops  and  blossoms  are  quite 
different  from  those  of  the  roots.  If  we  examine  a  potato 
tuber  we  find  upon  it  many  eyes  or  buds.  If  we  place  the 
potato  in  a  warm  damp  room  these  buds  grow  out  into  green 
stems.  We  can  even  cut  it  into  many  pieces  and  still 
the  eyes  will  send  out  stems.  We  do  not  cut  up  roots  for 
planting ;  we  sow  their  seed.  If  we  pull  up  a  hill  of  young 
potatoes  we  find  what  appear  to  be  two  sets  of  roots,  one  having 
little  balls  upon  them,  the  other  none.  Trace  those  that  carry 
the  little  potatoes  back  to  the  stem  and  you  find  that  they  are 
really  branches  of  the  stem,  whereas  the  others  are  the  true 
roots.  Then  we  conclude  that  the  potatoes  grow  on  under- 
ground stems,  that  they  are  really  swellings  of  the  stem  and  the 


66 


AGRICULTURE. 


eyes  are  buds ;  so  that 
what  we  plant  are  cut- 
tings of  the  underground 
stems  of  the  p'lants. 
Observe  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  eyes  in  the 
potato.  Rightly,  then, 
we  speak  of  the  potatoes 
as  being  tubers  not  roots. 
Jerusalem  artichokes 
also  are  tubers.  9 

If  you  cut  open  a 
potato  you  find  it  filled 
with  a  starchy  substance 
generally  white  in  color. 

Fig.    27.— Potato  plant,   showing  B  the  true  roots  ;  If  yOU  CUt  Up  fine  a  SUgar 

C,  the  underground  stems;  A,  the  tubers,  which  .                     _.        , 

are  swollen  or  enlarged  parts  of  the  stems.     The  DCet    anu    place    It     in    a 

eyes  in  the  potato  tubers,  therefore,  are  buds.  « 

coarse  towel  you  can 

wring  the  juice  out  of  it  quite  easily,  you  cannot  easily  do  so 
with  potatoes.  You  conclude  that  potatoes  have  less  water 
and  more  dry  matter  or  food  in  them  than  have  the  roots. 
If  you  evaporate  the  juice  from  potatoes  you  find  littfe  or  no 
sugar.  Then  we  conclude  that  roots  have  large  quantities  of 
sugar  and  water  in  their  make-up,  but  potatoes  have  less  water 
and  quite  a  large  amount  of  starch. 

The  potato,  the  tomato,  and  tobacco  belong  to  the  family 
known  as  Solanacecz.  The  sweet  potato  is  the  root  of  a  plant 
grown  in  very  warm  climates,  and  belongs  to  the  family  Con- 
volvulacecR)  as  do  the  morning  glory  and  dodder. 

New  varieties  of  potatoes  may  be  got  by  sowing  the  seed 
and  selecting  the  best  tubers  so  grown,  planting  these  and 
selecting  the  best  grown  from  them,  and  so  continuing. 


VARIOUS  OTHER  CROPS.  67 


CHAPTER  XV. 


VARIOUS  OTHER  CROPS. 

BUCKWHEAT  produces  seeds  or  grains  which  resemble  in 
shape  small  beech-nuts,  hence  the  name  beech-wheat  or  buck- 
wheat. The  second  part  of  the  word  would  suggest  that  it  is 
a  kind  of  wheat  or  a  member  of  the  grass  family.  This  is  not 
the  case,  as  the  leaves  and  flowers  prove.  It  belongs  to  the 
family  known  as  the  polygonacece,  to  which  also  belong  rhubarb, 
the  docks  or  sorrels,  and  knot  grass.  Its  roots  are  quite  short 
and  it  feeds  largely  on  the  air.  It  will  grow  even  on  very  poor 
soils,  where  it  is  sometimes  plowed  under  as  green  manure. 
Its  peculiar  blossom  is  noticeable  in  its  color  and  odor,  and  is 
much  sought  by  bees  for  its  nectar.  The  grain  is  used  for  flour 
and  also  for  feeding  in  moderate  quantities  to  stock.  Buck- 
wheat flour  is  not  so  rich  in  nitrogen  as  that  of  wheat,  and  the 
straw  has  more  fibre  than  the  straw  of  the  gramineee  or  true 
grasses. 

THE  SUNFLOWER  is  an  annual,  growing  very  high  on  tough 
stalks  with  a  large  showy  head  filled  with  seeds.  These  seeds 
are  rich  in  oil  and  nitrogen  compounds.  The  oil  forms  nearly 
one-fifth  of  the  dried  seed,  and  is  extracted  for  various  uses. 
The  seeds  are  used  also  for  feeding  stock.  Why  is  the  plant 
called  the  sunflower  ?  The  sunflower  is  a  fine  example  of  the 
large  family  known  as  the  composite,  which  have  many  flowers 
in  a  single  head.  The  thistle,  ragweed,  goldenrod,  aster,  daisy, 
yarrow,  chrysanthemum,  marigold,  salsify,  dandelion,  lettuce, 
and  sunflower  are  all  members  of  this  family.  Compare  the 
heads  of  any  of  these  before  and  after  seed  formation. 


68  AGRICULTURE. 

RAPE  has  already  been  referred  to  as  being  closely  related  to 
the  turnip  and  cabbage.  Its  leaf  resembles  that  of  the  turnip, 
but  its  root  is  much  smaller  and  its  top  much  larger.  It  grows 
to  a  height  of  from  one  to  three  feet.  Some  varieties  are 
annuals  and  some  are  biennials.  It  is  grown  both  for  its  seed, 
which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  valuable  oil — rapeseed  oil — 
and  also  for  its  tops,  which  are  used  in  pasturing  and  in  soiling. 
When  used  for  soiling  or  pasturing,  the  biennial  is  sown  in 
drills  and  cultivated. 

FLAX  is  an  annual  with  slender  stems  about  two  feet  in 
length  and  bearing  bluish  flowers.  The  seed  is  known  as 
flaxseed  or  linseed.  The  word  linseed  is  from  the  botanical 
name  linum,  which  is  also  found  in  linen,  the  cloth  made  from 
the  flax  fibre.  It  is  grown  both  for  its  seeds  and  for  its  fibre. 
The  seeds  contain  a  very  large  amount  of  oil  (linseed  oil),  which 
is  very  valuable  for  paints  and  other  purposes ;  also  a  large 
amount  of  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  of  ash  material.  When 
the  oil  is  removed  the  bye-product  forms  one  of  the  richest 
foods  used  for  stock-feeding.  When  the  plant  is  grown  for 
fibre  it  may  be  pulled  at  any  time  after  blossoming.  The  fibre 
is  obtained  from  the  stalks.  We  have  before  referred  to  the 
cell-structure  of  plants.  When  we  cut  across  a  piece  of  wood 
we  cut  across  its  cell  tubes ;  when  we  cut  lengthwise  along 
the  wood  we  cut  these  tubes  from  one  another.  The  grain,  as 
we  say,  runs  along  the  stem  or  limb.  In  some  plants  these 
cells  are  strung  together  in  threads  and  are  very  tough  so  that 
they  will  hold  together.  The  cells  in  the  bark  or  bast  are 
generally  longer  and  tougher  than  those  in  the  wood,  and  are 
known  as  bast  cells  or  bast  fibres.  The  inner  bark  of  bass 
wood  (or  bast-wood)  is  quite  tough  because  of  these.  These 
bast  cells  in  the  flax  are  very  fine  and  very  tough,  and,  there- 
fore, make  fine  fibre.  The  best  fibre  is  got  from  flax  that  has 
not  ripened  its  seed-vessels  or  bolls.  Why  ?  Generally,  how- 
ever, the  plant  is  allowed  to  ripen  its  seeds.  The  plants  are 


VARIOUS  OTHER  CROPS.  69 

pulled  by  hand,  dried,  and  tied  in  bundles.  The  seed  is 
separated  by  what  is  known  as  "  rippling  "  or  combing  out. 
Then  the  straw  is  partly  rotted,  either  on  the  grass  or  by 
steeping  in  vats  of  water.  This  process  rots  the  coarse  woody 
part  of  the  stem,  and  separates  the  fine  fibre  from  it.  It  is 
then  dried  and  "scutched,"  either  by  hand  or  by  machine. 
This  process  of  scutching  simply  rubs  or  beats  away  the  loose 
woody  parts  from  the  long  fibres.  The  fibre  is  now  ready  for 
use,  to  be  made  into  twine  or  thread  or  linen  cloth.  To  grow 
good  crops  of  flax,  rich,  clean,  well-drained,  well-cultivated  soil 
is  needed.  It  requires  a  moist  climate,  moderately  warm.  The 
plant  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid,  and 
therefore  we  may  conclude  that  it  takes  a  good  deal  of  nourish- 
ment out  of  the  soil ;  but  these  constituents  are  found  almost 
wholly  in  the  seed  and  straw  and  not  in  the  fibre,  so  that  if  the 
straw  is  returned  to  the  soil,  and  the  seed  fed  on  the  farm, 
there  will  be  little  loss  in  growing  flax  for  the  sale  of  fibre  only. 

THE  HOP  is  a  member  of  the  nettle  family.  It  is  a  perennial 
plant.  It  is  started  by  cuttings,  in  hills  about  six  feet  apart. 
The  plants  are  not  woody  enough  to  support  themselves,  and 
therefore  climb  up  to  the  air  and  sunshine  by  twining.  The 
hop  blossoms  are  picked  by  hand  when  just  ripe  (a  condition 
learned  only  by  experience),  and  dried  in  a  kiln  or  drying 
house  (called  an  oast  house  in  Kent,  England),  when  they  are 
packed  and  sold  for  use  in  brewing.  The  value  of  the  hop  is 
greatly  influenced  by  the  climate.  Hop  vines  always  twine  in 
the  same  direction — to  the  right.  Bindweed  and  morning  glory 
twine  to  the  left.  How  do  the  grape  vine  and  Virginia  creeper 
climb  and  support  themselves  ?  How  do  peas  and  tares  ? 

We  have  already  learned  that  the  two  important  parts  of  a 
blossom  are  the  pistils  and  stamens,  that  perfect  blossoms 
have  both,  but  that  in  some  plants  there  are  blossoms  having 
pistils  but  no  stamens  ;  and  in  other  plants  there  are  blossoms 
having  stamens  but  no  pistils.  The  former  blossoms  are 


70  AGRICULTURE. 

called  pisti'late  blossoms,  and  the  latter  staminate.  Only  the 
pistillate  blossoms  form  seed.  In  some  cases  pistillate  and 
staminate  blossoms  grow  on  the  same  plant,  as  in  cucumber 
vines.  These  are  said  to  be  monoecious  plants.  In  other  cases 
the  pistillate  and  the  staminate  blossoms  grow  on  different 
plants.  These  plants  are  said  to  be  dioecious.  The  hop  plant 
is  dioecious.  In  setting  out  a  hop-yard,  therefore,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  here  and  there  some  plants  that  produce  staminate 
blossoms,  to  supply  pollen  for  the  pistillate. 

TOBACCO  is  an  annual,  grown  only  in  warm  climates,  but 
much  farther  north  than  cotton,  being  grown  in  the  milder 
parts  of  Quebec  and  Ontario.  It  is  grown  for  its  long,  broad 
leaves.  In  the  use  of  tobacco  we  observe  three  things;  first, 
it  burns  readily ;  second,  it  gives  a  very  large  amount  of  ash ; 
third,  it  has  a  peculiar  effect  upon  the  smoker.  It  burns 
readily  because,  in  addition  to  its  woody  or  fibrous  matter,  it 
contains  large  quantities  of  potash,  which  readily  unites  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air.  Its  ash  forms  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  plant.  Its  effects  upon  the  human  system  are  due  to  a 
compound  known  as  nicotine,  similar  to  theine  in  tea  and  caffeine 
in  coffee.  In  their  pure  condition  these  "  alkaloids  "  as  they 
are  called,  are  poisons. 

From  the  following  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  tobacco  is 
very  hard  upon  the  soil,  and  requires  very  rich  fertilizing. 
An  acre  of  tobacco  will  yield  about  1,500  pounds  of  tobacco 
leaf.  The  whole  crop  will  contain  about  70  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 15  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  (in  phosphates),  and  150 
pounds  of  potash — 235  pounds  in  all.  An  acre  of  wheat, 
yielding  20  bushels  of  grain,  will  contain  40  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 15  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  18  pounds  of  potash 
—  73  pounds  in  all.  An  acre  of  meadow  hay,  yielding  2  tons, 
will  contain  about  56  pounds  of  nitrogen,  14  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  60  pounds  of  potash — 130  pounds  in  all. 


WEEDS.  7 1 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


WEEDS. 
"A  weed  is  a  plant  in  the  wrong  place." 

WEEDS  ARE  PLANTS. — White  clover  is  frequently  sown  with 
grass  seeds  on  lawns,  yet  a  few  plants  in  a  fine  lawn  of  June 
grass  would  be  considered  weeds.  Tares  are  grown  as  a 
fodder  crop ;  in  a  wheat  field  we  call  them  weeds.  Ox-eye 
daisies  and  goldenrod  in  a  flower  garden  are  fine  plants,  but  in 
pastures  or  hay  fields  they  are  weeds.  A  weed  is  a  plant  just 
as  much  as  wheat,  corn,  or  clover.  It  has  all  the  parts  of 
plants,  grows  like  other  plants,  and  forms  new  plants.  But  it 
is  a  plant  that  we  do  not  want ;  it  is  a  plant  out  of  its  place, 
or,  rather,  it  is  a  plant  in  the  wrong  place. 

OBJECTIONS  TO  WEEDS. — We  might  say  that  weeds  are 
objected  to  because,  whether  valuable  or  not  in  other  places 
or  at  other  times,  they  are  not  what  we  are  working  for. 
If  a  man  engaged  in  moulding  plowshares  should  find  one- 
half  of  his  work  turning  out  to  be  large  cannon  balls  he  would 
consider  his  work,  to  that  extent,  a  failure,  because  his  business 
is  to  make  plowshares,  not  cannon  balls.  So  if  a  farmer  finds 
his  work  resulting  half  in  grain  or  hay,  half  in  weeds,  his  work 
is  a  failure  to  that  extent.  But  we  must  have  particulars. 

i  st.  Weeds  require  some  labor,  whether  we  permit  them  to 
grow  or  try  to  destroy  them.  Sometimes  our  labor  helps  the 
weeds  to  grow  more  rapidly,  just  because  we  do  not  under- 
stand their  nature.  Weeds  mean  work. 

2nd.  Weeds,  through  their  roots,  take  up  food  from  the  soil. 
Our  most  valuable  plants  do  not  take  very  much  out  of  the 
soil ;  on  the  average  not  more  than  one-twentieth  of  their 


72  AGRICULTURE. 

total  weight.  Usually,  however,  there  is  not  very  much  food 
just  ready  for  the  plants  to  take  up.  If  there  are  weeds  growing 
with  the  crops  there  will  be  less  food  for  the  latter.  Some  of 
the  weeds  are  heavy  feeders. 

3rd.  Many  weeds  have  broad,  spreading  leaves  which  cover 
over  the  tender  young  plants  of  our  crops,  and  by  shutting  off 
the  sunlight  smother  them  out.  This  may  be  seen  best  in  a 
pasture  or  on  a  lawn  (dandelions  and  plantains  for  example). 

4th.  Weeds  draw  moisture  from  the  soil  through  the  roots 
and  give  it  off  through  the  leaves;  weeds  help  to  dry  up  the  soil. 

5th.  Weeds  are  feeding  and  breeding  grounds  for  insects  and 
they  assist  in  the  spread  of  many  crop  diseases. 

6th.  Frequently  weeds  are  poisonous  to  stock,  they  taint  the 
milk,  or  they  destroy  wool. 

yth.  Weeds  offend  the  eye  and  degrade  the  taste  for  farming. 

Because  of  these  facts  every  weed  should  be  considered  an 
intruder,  a  thief,  and  a  murderer  of  other  crops,  and  every 
farmer  should  try  to  keep  his  soil  as  clean  as  possible.  To 
succeed  it  will  be  necessary  to  know  as  far  as  possible  the 
nature  and  the  mode  of  growth  of  the  weeds. 

NATURE  OF  WEEDS. — Wild  mustard,  lamb's  quarters,  shep- 
herd's purse,  and  wild  oats  form  seed  the  first  season ;  the 
plants  then  die  and  the  seeds  are  ready  to  sprout  the  next 
season.  Such  weeds  are  annuals.  They  generally  have  fibrous 
roots  and  produce  a  large  number  of  seeds.  The  seeds  in 
many  cases  are  oily  and  are  covered  with  hard  coatings ;  they 
are  able  to  sprout  after  lying  in  the  ground  a  long  time,  even  for 
many  years.  Thus  the  seeds  may  be  plowed  under  deep  and 
the  next  year  the  field  may  appear  clean.  After  a  couple  of 
years  they  are  brought  up  by  plowing  and  cultivation,  and  once 
more  the  field  will  appear  weedy  and  dirty.  If  the  weeds  are 
cut  off  before  the  seeds  form  they  will  be  destroyed,  for  they 
cannot  survive  or  reproduce  unless  seeds  are  formed. 


WEEDS.  73 

The  wild  carrot,  the  wild  parsnip,  teasel,  burdock,  blue  weed, 
and  mullein  grow  like  our  common  garden  roots — they  do 
not  form  their  seed  until  the  second  season.  They  are  bien- 
nials, and  are  usually  tap-rooted.  It  will  not  do  in  their  case 
simply  to  cut  off  the  tops  the  first  year,  for  they  will  spring  up 
again.  Continued  cutting  off  of  the  top,  or,  better  still,  the 
complete  removal  of  the  root,  will  be  found  necessary  with  such. 

The  ox-eye  daisy,  plantain,  sorrel,  and  dandelion  live  on 
from  year  to  year ;  they  are  perennials,  and,  therefore,  most 
difficult  of  all  to  get  rid  of.  Some  of  the  perennials,  such  as 
the  Canada  thistle,  couch  grass,  toad  flax,  milk  weed,  perennial 
sow  thistle,  yarrow,  and  bindweed  are  creeping  in  their  roots, 
that  is,  they  spread  by  the  root,  and  therefore  are  among  the 
worst  weeds,  and,  because  of  this,  they  are  most  difficult  to 
completely  remove,  and  require  most  thorough  treatment.  It 
is  important,  therefore,  to  know  the  nature  of  weeds,  as  to 
whether  they  are  annuals,  biennials,  or  perennials,  and  as  to 
whether  they  are  creeping  perennials. 

NAMING  OF  WEEDS. — The  weeds  are  classified  like  other 
plants.  Frequently  lists  of  weeds  are  given,  having  their 
common  names  and  also  long  scientific  names,  difficult  to 
spell  and  difficult  to  pronounce.  Why  is  it  necessary  to 
have  long  scientific  names  for  weeds  when  common  names 
are  easily  pronounced,  are  easily  understood,  and  are  so 
suggestive?  Take  an  example.  Teasel,  water  thistle,  tall 
thistle,  Indian  thistle,  English  thistle,  and  Fuller's  card  are 
all  local  names  for  one  weed.  All  do  not  know  it  by  the 
same  name,  but  as  dipsaats  sylvestris  every  botanist  in  any  part 
of  the  world  would  know  it  or  would  be  able  to  find  it  in 
scientific  books.  Blue  weed,  blue  thistle,  blue  stem  are 
various  names  in  different  places  for  the  same  weed.  Stick 
seed,  stick  weed,  stick  tights  are  different  weeds,  although 
somewhat  similar  in  name;  and  stick  weed,  in  fact,  is  applied 
to  diflerent  weeds  in  different  places. 


74  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  FIELD. 

GRASSHOPPERS. — We  shall  first  refer  to  an  insect  that  attacks 
nearly  all  the  plants  of  the  field — the  grasshopper.  You 
catch  one  of  these  insects  in  the  hayfield  or  the  pasture 
and  carefully  observe  its  form.  First  of  all  you  count  its 
legs — there  are  six,  three  on  each  side.  By  comparing  with 
other  insects  you  notice  that  all  except  spiders  have  the  same 
number.  You  observe  that  its  legs  are  jointed  and  that  its  very 
long  hind  legs  are  well  suited  to  jumping  or  hopping.  Then 


Fig.  28. — A  Grasshopper. 

you  notice  that  its  body  is  put  together  in  parts  or  sections.  So 
are  those  of  other  insects — hence  the  name  "  in-sect."  It  has 
also  two  long  curved  feelers  sticking  out  in  front  of  its  head 
(each  is  called  an  antenna  and  the  two  are  called  antennae). 
Then  observe  the  two  large  eyes  and  the  mouth  fitted  for  biting 
or  cutting  through  the  leaf  and  the  stalk  of  the  grass.  The 
outside  of  the  body  is  hard  and  the  inside  soft — a  dead,  dried- 
up  grasshopper  has  the  form  of  a  live  one.  A  horse  or  a 
cow  has  its  bones  within  and  the  soft  flesh  outside,  but  the 
insect  has  its  bony  part,  so  to  speak,  on  the  outside. 


INSECTS   OF   THE    FIELD.  75 

Next  we  must  learn  something  of  its  mode  of  increasing — its 
life-history.  Grasshoppers  are  male  and  female  and  the  latter 
lays  the  eggs.  Sometimes  she  does  this  in  soft  wood  but 
generally  in  the  ground,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  after  the  damage 
to  crops  has  been  done.  The  female  makes  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  in  which  she  lays  a  number  of  tiny  eggs.  These  are 
covered  with  a  sticky  substance  which  causes  them  to  hang 
together  like  a  pod.  The  nest  or  hole  is  then  covered  over 
and  there  they  remain  unseen  through  the  winter.  In  the 
warm  spring  they  hatch  out  and  thousands  and  millions  of 
young  grasshoppers  appear.  Their  appearance  in  large  numbers 
is  thus  explained.  They  have  no  wings,  but  they  can  spring 
about,  and  they  have  vigorous  appetites.  Later  on  their  wings 
appear,  and  now  they  are  able  to  fly.  They  have  done  much 
damage  where  they  were  hatched  and  now  they  can  fly  away 
long  distances,  eating  up  and  cutting  down  grass  and  hay  and 
grain.  Later  on  the  females  deposit  their  eggs,  to  be  hatched 
out  the  next  year.  And  so  they  continue  year  by  year.  Some- 
times severe  weather  destroys  their  eggs  or  the  young  insects. 
Other  insects  may  eat  them  up.  Tiny  forms  of  life  (parasites) 
prey  upon  them.  Diseases  of  various  kinds  destroy  them. 
Knowing  their  mode  of  life,  their  life-history,  the  farmer  can 
check  them.  For  instance,  when  a  field  becomes  infested  with 
them,  it  can  be  ploughed  up  in  the  fall  and  their  nests  of  eggs 
destroyed.  A  change  or  a  rotation  of  crops  is  advisable. 

Insects  are  arranged  in  orders.  The  principal  basis  of  this 
classification  is  the  form  or  structure  of  the  wings.  The  grass- 
hoppers are  "  straight-winged."  Crickets  and  cockroaches 
belong  to  the  same  order.  Entomology  is  the  science  of 
insects,  as  Botany  is  the  science  of  plants.  The  Entomologist 
sometimes  uses  the  word  orthoptera  when  stating  the  order 
to  which  grasshoppers  belong. 

MOTHS  AND  CUTWORMS. — In  gardens  and  fields  we  often 
find  the  plants  bc-ing  cut  off,  but  can  see  no  insect  or  other 


76  AGRICULTURE. 

animal  at  work.  If,  however,  we  turn  up  the  soil  we  find  some 
dull-colored,  greasy-looking  caterpillars  of  almost  the  same 
color  as  the  soil.  On  the  top  of  the  ring  or  section  next 
to  the  head  is  a  smooth  shield;  the  head  is  smooth  and  shiny; 
there  are  some  bristles  along  the  side ;  and,  when  disturbed, 
the  worm  curls  up.  This  is  a  cutworm  ;  rather,  this  is  one 
of  the  cutworms,  for  there  are  very  many  different  kinds. 
They  stay  in  the  ground  during  the  day  and  come  out  at  night  to 
eat  off  the  leaves  and  stalks.  These  cutworms  have  been  hatched 
from  little  eggs  in  the  spring,  summer,  or  fall.  The  cutworms, 
or  caterpillars  as  they  may  be  called,  are  quite  small  when  first 
hatched,  but  they  are  heavy  feeders  and  grow  gradually  to  the 
size  shown  in  figure  29,  and  by  their  feeding  they  do 
great  damage  in  garden  and  field.  When  they  have  become 
full  grown  they  burrow  into  the  soil  several  inches  and 
become  a  hard,  deadlike  mass  similar  to  that  shown 
in  figure  29.  This  is  what  is  known  as  the  pupa  of  the 
insect.  For  several  weeks,  perhaps  all  through  the  winter,  they 
remain  asleep  in  this  condition.  Then  another  change  takes 
place,  the  hard  shell  of  the  pupa  cracks  and  there  comes  forth 
a  moth  with  wings  and  legs  and  feelers,  looking  entirely 
different  from  the  caterpillar  or  the  pupa.  These  moths 
are  the  perfect  insects  ;  they  are  dull  in  color  and  are 
very  active  at  night.  They  lay  eggs  which  hatch  into  cater- 
pillars, and  the  caterpillars  go  to  sleep  in  the  pupa  form 
to  again  come  forth  as  perfect  moths.  In  most  cases  the  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  fall,  and  the  young  caterpillars,  less  than  half  an 
inch  long,  lie  in  the  ground  quiet  all  winter.  In  the  spring 
they  attack  the  young  crops  and  do  most  damage.  About  July 
they  are  full  grown ;  then  they  go  into  the  pupa  state  and 
come  out  moths  in  August.  If  the  fields  become  weedy  and 
there  is  much  vegetation  on  the  land  in  the  fall  the  moths  have 
a  fine  place  for  laying  their  eggs,  and  there  is  plenty  of  food  for 


INSECTS   OF  THE   FIELD. 


77 


the  young  caterpillars.     Therefore  the  thorough  cleaning  of  the 
land  after  harvest  is  one  means  of  checking  them. 

The  army  worm  also  is  the  caterpillar  of  a  moth,  and  is  so 
called  from  its  occasional  appearance  in  immense  numbers, 
when  they  devour  nearly  every  particle  of  plant  food  in  the 

CHRYSALIS, 


A\OTH 


ARMY (WORM. 


Fig.  29. — Army  worm,  pupa  of  same,  and  moth  into  which  it  changes.     The 
eggs  are  seen  along  the  leaf.     This  is  a  cutworm. 


course  of  their  march.  Then  we  have  other  moths,  the  larvae 
of  which  live  upon  the  fibre  of  clothing,  clothes  moths.  All 
these  are  similar  in  form  and  in  their  changes,  and  all  are  very 
destructive. 

Besides  the  egg  we  have,  in  most  insects,  the  three  forms  or 
states,  namely :  the  caterpillar,  or  larva  ;  the  />/'/</,  or  resting 
state;  and  the  perfect  insect,  or  imago.  All  moths,  butterflies, 
bees,  beetles,  and  flies  pass  through  these  same  three  states — 
thus  we  see  that  the  insects  differ  from  other  animals  both  in 
their  general  form  or  appearance,  and  also  in  their  method  of 
growth  or  course  of  life.  In  the  case  of  grasshoppers  and 
some  bugs  there  is  no  pupa  or  resting  state. 


7»  AGRICULTURE. 

BUTTERFLIES. — We  frequently  find  mistakes  made  in  the  use 
of  the  words  moths  and  butterflies.  Both  have  scaly-wings  as 
we  see  when  we  catch  them  and  find  the  fine  powder  from  the 
wings  sticking  to  our  fingers.  This  powder  under  a  magnifying 
glass  appears  like  scales  of  different  shapes  and  colors.  There 
may  be  several  hundred  thousand  of  these  tiny  scales  on  a  single 
wing.  However,  there  are  differences  in  the  two  insects ;  the 


Fig.  30.— Cabbage  butterfly.     The  caterpillar  above  on  the  left;  the  chrysalis  below 

on  the  left. 

moths  usually  fly  about  at  night  and  the  butterflies  in  daytime. 
Then  if  we  examine  the  feelers  or  antenna  we  see  that  those  of 
the  moths  are  usually  feathered,  while  those  of  the  butterflies 
are  more  or  less  thread-like  and  knobbed  at  the  end.  We  can 
readily  observe  the  changes  in  the  common  butterflies.  The 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves  of  trees.  Little,  crawling,  bristly 
caterpillars  are  hatched  from  these  eggs.  They  grow  in  size, 
and  it  is  only  while  in  this  larval  state  that  that  they  are 
destructive.  The  caterpillars  do  injury  principally  to  the  plants 
of  the  garden,  orchard,  and  forest.  The  pupa  of  a  butterfly 
is  called  a  chrysalis.  It  is  usually  rough  and  angular, 
whereas  that  of  a  moth  is  smooth  and  oval  and  often  cov- 
ered with  a  silky  cocoon.  From  the  chrysalis  later  on 
there  comes  forth  a  beautiful  butterfly. 


INSECTS   OF   THE    FIELD. 


79 


BEETLES  are  so  common  that  nearly  every  person  is  familiar 
with  their  appearance.  Some  are  very  small;  those  found  in  this 
country  are  usually  not  larger  than  the 
figure  shown  here.  In  some  foreign 
countries,  however,  they  are  found  four 
to  six  inches  long.  Observe  the  three 
sections  of  the  beetle.  There  are  two  pairs 
of  wings,  the  upper  pair  quite  hard  or 
horny,  covering  the  pair  of  fihny  wings 
beneath.  These  sheath-wings  are  pecul- 
iar to  the  beetles.  How  many  legs 
have  they  ?  Where  are  they  attached  to 
the  insect  ?  Find  the  eyes  and  observe 
the  shape  of  the  mouth  and  feelers  or 
horns.  The  beetles  go  through  much  the  same  changes  observed 
in  moths.  In  the  case  of  the  beetles,  however,  the  larval 
form  is  known  as  a  grub.  The  white  grubs  found  in  the  soil 
are  the  larvae  of  large  brown  beetles. 


Fig.  31. — A  ground  beetle, 
one  of  the  "sheath 
winged "  insects,  very 
destructive  to  cutworms. 


Fig.  32. — Lady-bird  beetles,  or  "lady-bugs."    The  straight  lines  represent  the  average 
natural  length.     These  beetles  are  very  destructive  to  plant  lice. 

Among  the  beetles  we  have  a  large  number  of  very  des- 
tructive insects.  There  is,  for  instance,  the  potato  beetle 
which  does  so  much  damage  to  the  potato  plant  by  eating 
the  leaves.  See  fig.  33.  The  hard-shelled  beetle  lays  her 
orange-colored  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  a  leaf.  These 
eggs  hatch  into  the  soft-skinned  larvre  which  eat  the 
leaves.  The  larvae  change  to  pupae  and  these  to  the  full- 
grown  winged  insects.  Since  the  larvae  feed  on  the  leaves  a 
simple  remedy  is  to  sprinkle  some  poison  (Paris  green)  on 
the  leaves  just  before  they  begin  to  feed,  or  to  destroy  the 


8o 


AGRICULTURE. 


eggs  before  these  hatch.  Why  does  the  eating  off  of  the 
leaves  above  ground  injure  the  plant  in  producing  tubers  under 
ground  ? 


Fig.  33. — Colorado  beetle  or  "  potato  bug."    a,  eggs  on  underside  of  leaf;  6,  larva  that 
eats  the  leaves  ;  c,  pupa  ;  d,  imago  or  perfect  insect ;  e ,  wing-cover  ;  /,  leg. 

The  turnip  flea-beetle  is  sometimes  wrongly  called  "the  turnip 
fly."  Our  illustration  shows  the  shape  of  the  beetle  and  the 
larva  much  larger  than  life.  The  little 
black  beetles  pass  the  winter  under  any 
rubbish  or  clods  of  earth,  and  in  the 
spring  seek  out  some  weeds  near  by  that 
belong  to  the  same  family  as  the  turnip, 
such  as  mustaid  and  shepherd's  purse. 

As  soon  as  the  young  turnips  appear  above  ground  they 
do  great  damage  by  eating  holes  in  the  leaves.  One  of  the 
remedies  appears  to  be  the  keeping  of  the  ground  clean  of 
rubbish  and  the  destruction  of  all  weeds,  especially  wild  mustard 
or  charlock,  false  flax,  shepherd's  purse,  pepper-grass,  etc.  The 
beetles  lay  their  eggs  on  the  roots  of  the  turnip.  In  a  few 
days  the  larvae  or  grubs  hatch  out  and  feed  upon  the  roots. 


Fig.    34. — The    turnip    flea- 
beetle. 


INSECTS    OF   THE    FIELD. 


81 


When  full-grown  they  enter  the  pupa  state  in  the  ground  and 
emerge  full-grown  beetles.  There  may  be  several  broods  in  a 
season.  By  having  the  ground  in  good  condition  before  the 
seed  is  sown  the  young  plants  grow  rapidly  and  soon  get  the 
start  of  the  beetles. 

The  weevils  also  belong  to  the  same  order  as  the  beetles, 
and  are  most  injurious  to  grain  crops.  The  pea-weevil  may  be 
taken.  Its  eggs  are  laid  on  the  outside  of  the  young  pod. 
The  larva  hatches  and  eats  its  way  through  the  pod  and  into 
one  of  the  peas,  where  it  lives  upon  the  substance  of  the  pea. 
The  change  to  the  pupa  takes  place  in  the  pea.  Sometimes 
these  beetles  come  out  in  the  fall,  but  in  most  cases  they  stay 
inside  the  peas  until  spring.  They  do  great  damage  to  the 
peas  by  destroying  the  germ.  All  grain  weevils  may  be  killed 
by  placing  in  the  bins  some  poisonous  substance  that  will 
readily  evaporate,  such  as  carbon  bisulphide.  The  bins  are 
shut  tight  and  the  beetles  are  killed  by  the  fumes.  If 
the  peas  are  kept  over  until 
two  years  old  the  beetles  will 
mature  and  die  in  the  bins  the 
first  year,  and  the  seed  then 
sown  the  second  year  will  be 
entirely  free  from  the  pest. 
These  beetles  do  not  lay  their 
eggs,  or  oviposit,  on  dry  peas. 
Any  seeds  of  which  the  germs 
have  been  eaten  by  the  grubs 


will,  of  course,  not  sprout. 


if?.  35- — Pea-weevil  or  "  pea  bujr,"  life  size. 
A,  the  mature  beetle,  enlarged  ;  H,  the 
larva  or  grub,  enlarged  ;  larva  life  size. 


82 


AGRICULTURE. 


Fig.  36. — Currant  sawflies  ;  grub  or  larva  on  the 
right.  The  perfect  insects  have  yellow  bodies. 
The  eggs  are  laid  along  the  ribs  on  the  backs 
of  the  leaves. 


Fig.  37. — Larvz  of  currant-worm,  green,  dotted 
with  black  spots. 


TRANSPARENT-WINGED 
INSECTS. — This  order 
includes  ants,  bees, 
wasps,  hornets,  and 
sawflies.  The  scientific 
name  for  this  order  is 
hymenoptera.  The  study 
of  an  ant  hill  will  be 
found  very  interesting. 
We  need  not  look  for 
any  in  a  well-cultivated 
field.  No  warning  need 
be  given  that  in  the  study 
o  f  bees,  wasps,  and 
hornets  great  care  must 
be  used.  As  for  saw- 
flies,  illustrations  given 
in  figs.  36  and  37  will 
serve  to  make  their 
acquaintance — to  "iden- 
tify" them.  They  are 
called  sawflies  because 
they  are  able  to  cut  or 
saw  into  leaves  with  their 
abdomen  in  order  to 
make  nests  for  their 
eggs.  The  stems  of 
wheat  are  sometimes 
cut  off  by  sawflies,  and 
the  galls  in  oaks  are 
produced  by  gall-flies 
which  also  belong  to  the 
order  of  transparent- 
winged  insects. 


INSECTS    OF   THE    FIELD.  83 

BUGS — All  bugs  are  insects  but  all  insects  are  not  bugs. 
When  we  speak  of  bugs  we  mean  such  insects  as  the  many  kinds 
of  plant  lice.  Aphis  (plural,  aphides)  is  another  name  for  a 
plant-louse.  This  order  of  insects  is  known  as  the  half-winged 
(hemiptera).  Some  have  only  two  wings  and  some  have  four. 
We  find  plant  lice  quite  common  on  many  house  plants 
and  garden  plants.  Orchard  trees,  cabbages,  hops  and 
many  other  plants  are  much  infested  by  lice,  some  very  small, 
some  large  enough  to  be  easily  studied.  There  are  some  also 


Fig.  38. — Plant  lice,  half-winged  insects.     Cross  lines  and  small  figure 
show  natural  size. 

that  do  much  damage  to  grain,  especially  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  and  rye.  The  plant  louse  or  aphis  is  generally  green 
or  black,  sometimes  yellow  ;  in  fact  if  we  observe  closely 
and  frequently  we  shall  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
color  of  the  aphis  is  not  unlike  the  color  of  the  leaf,  stalk  or 
head  that  it  feeds  upon.  We  notice  also  that  the  leaves  of 
plants  upon  which  the  aphides  are  found  in  large  numbers  soon 
curl  over  and  become  sickly.  If  we  examine  a  large  plant  louse 
we  find  that  it  has  a  strong  beak  about  one-third  the  length  of 
its  body,  so  that  it  is  well  fitted  to  pierce  through  the  skin  of 
plants  and  to  suck  the  sap.  They  live  on  liquid  food.  An- 
other thing  we  observe  in  regard  to  them  is  that  the  lice  are 
found  in  large  numbers,  and  they  multiply  very  rapidly.  Some 
lice  feed  largely  upon  other  insects,  and  are  therefore  bene- 
ficial. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Kig.  39. — Caterpillar  covered  with 
parasites. 


In  the  case  of  house  plants,  garden  plants  and  orchard  trees 
we  can  wash  and  spray  with  solutions  that  destroy  the  lice,  but 
with  lice  that  injure  the  grain  such  means  are  not  yet  practi- 
cable. Why  then  do  not  the  lice  multiply  so  as  to  eat  up 
everything  in  the  fields?  Simply  because  there  are  other  insects 
that  keep  them  in  check.  There  are  some  tiny  flies  that 
attack  the  lice  and  lay  their  eggs 
right  in  the  bodies  of  the  lice. 
These  parasites  soon  kill  the  lice. 
Other  insects  are  destroyed  in 
the  same  way,  such  as  cater- 
pillars and  grasshoppers.  If 
we  carefully  examine  the  leaves  of  trees  or  other  plants 
infested  with  lice  we  may  find  some  of  the  beautiful  little 
lady-beetles  and  their  larvae  feeding  upon  the  lice.  Another 
enemy  of  lice  is  the  aphis-lion,  the  larva  of  a  lace-wing  fly. 

FLIES — If  you  examine  a  common  house-fly  or  a  mosquito, 
you  observe  that  it  has  only  two  wings.  Here  then  we  have 
another  order,  that  of  the  "two-winged"  flies,  known  as  diptera. 
The  Hessian  fly,  the  wheat  midge,  the  many  flies  of  root  plants, 
mosquitoes,  fleas,  and  many  of  the  flies  that  annoy  stock — all 
have  two  wings  only  and  belong  to  this  order. 

The  Hessian  fly  appears  in  spring  as 
a  small  winged  insect  with  long  legs. 
The  female  lays  about  twenty  eggs  in 
the  fold  or  crease  of  the  leaf  of  the 
young  wheat  plant.  After  a  few  days  the 
larvae  hatch  and  get  down  between  the 
stem  and  leaf-sheath.  Here  they  feed 
on  the  plant  and  weaken  it  so  that 
the  heavy  head  soon  after  topples  over 
and  the  grain  is  destroyed.  The  eggs 
may  be  laid  either  in  the  spring  or  in 
the  early  fall.  When  the  latter  is  the 


Fig.  40  —The   Hessian  fly 
two-winged  insect. 


INSECTS   OF   THE    FIELD. 


case  the  young  insects  generally  pass  through  the  winter  in 
the  pupa  state,  known  as  the  "the  flax-seed"  condition, 
because  the  pupa  case  is  like  a  flax-seed.  Any  such  found  in 
wheat  screenings  should  of  course  be  burned,  and  where  found 
in  the  field  the  stubble  should  be  cut  and  burned.  The 
principal  remedy  for  the  Hessian  fly  then  is  to  completely 
burn  all  material  containing  the  young  insects  and  to  change 
from  wheat  to  a  cultivated  crop,  as  roots  or  corn.  The  Hessian 
fly  attacks  wheat,  barley,  and  rye. 

The  Clover-Seed  Midge  lays  its  eggs  in  the  young  clover- 
heads  where  the  larvae  or  orange-colored  maggots  hatch  out 
and  do  much  damage.  Then  they  fall  to  the  ground  and  com- 
plete their  changes,  appearing  as  full-grown  insects  towards  the 

latter  part  of  summer,  ready  to 
do  damage  again  to  the  second 
crop  of  clover.  Where  the 
midge  is  doing  much  damage 
it  is  evident  that  the  pasturing 
off  of  the  first  crop  of  clover 
will  tend  to  destroy  the  larvae. 
The  first  crop  also  may  be  cut 
early,  when  in  full  bloom,  be- 
fore the  first  brood  of  maggots 
develop.  A  regular  rotation 
of  crops  tends  to  keep  in 
check  these  and  many  other 
injurious  insects. 
CONCLUSIONS  : 

1.  Insects  are  so-called  because  they  are  made  up  of  sec- 
tions.    There  are  three  main  parts,  the  head,  the  thorax  or 
trunk,  and  the  abdomen.     The  thorax  and  abdomen  are  also 
made  up  of  sections  (see  illustrations). 

2.  The  legs  and  wings  of  the  adult  or  perfect  insect  are  all 
attached  to  the  thorax. 


Fig.  41. — Midge  and  larva. 


86  AGRICULTURE. 

3.  The  adult  insect  usually  has  two  large,  compound  eyes, 
that  is,  eyes  made   up   of  many   parts.      The  antennae,    or 
"  feelers,"  are  attached  to  the  head.     Some  persons  think  that 
insects  hear  by  means  of  their  antennae. 

4.  Insects  breathe,  not  through  the  mouth,  but  through  small 
holes  or  openings  along  their  sides.     These  are  called  "  spir- 
acles "  and  are  connected  with  air  tubes  passing  through  the 
body. 

5.  As  a  rule  insects  pass  through  three  forms  after  coming 
from  the  eggs,   known  as  :  first,  the  larva  (caterpillars,  grubs, 
slugs,  maggots,  etc.)  ;   second,  the  pupa  (called  chrysalis  and 
nymph  in  certain  forms) ;  and  third,  the  imago  or  perfect  or 
adult  insect  (butterflies,  moths,  beetles,  flies,  etc.). 

6.  Insects  are  kept  in  check  by  nature  in  various  ways.     They 
destroy   one  another;  for  instance,  the  lady-bird  beetle,  the 
ground-beetle,  the  tiger-beetle,  the  aphis-lion  prey  upon  other 
insects.     Toads  and  lizards  devour  large  quantities  of  insects. 
Many  birds  feed  upon  insects  almost  entirely,   and  are  hence 
called  "  insectivorous  birds." 

7.  Insects  lay  eggs  when  in  the  imago  or  perfect  form,  but  the 
damage  to  plants  is  done  principally  when  in  the  larval  form. 
The  imago  or  adult  insect  is  full  grown  when  it  comes  from 
the  pupa. 

8.  Insects   injure   plants   either   by  biting  and   eating   the 
foliage  and  other  living  parts,  or  by  sucking  their  sap.     Biting 
insects,  such  as  cutworms  and  grubs,  may  be  destroyed  by 
placing  poison  (Paris   green,   etc.)   on   the   plants.     Sucking 
insects,  such  as  plant-lice,  are  destroyed  by  dusting  the  plants 
with  insect  powder  or  by  spraying  them  with  an  emulsion  of 
kerosene  and  soap  —thereby  closing  up  the  breathing  holes  of 
the  insects. 

9.  Where  the  insects  of  field  crops  cannot  be  destroyed  by 
spraying,    the  best  practice  is  to  keep  the  fields  and  fence 
corners  clean  and  free  from  weeds  and  rubbish,  to  thoroughly  till 


INSECTS   OF  THE   FIELD.  87 

the  ground,  to  adopt  a  good  system  of  rotation  of  crops,  and 
to  keep  the  seed  grain  clean. 

10.  Insects  are  arranged   according   to  their  wings.     The 
following  are  some  of  the  orders  : 

1.  Nerve-winged  or  neuroptera dragon  flies  and  may-flies. 

2.  Straight- winged  or  orthoptera grasshoppers  and  crickets. 

3.  Half- winged  or  hemiptera bugs  and  plant-lice. 

4.  Sheath- winged  or  coleoptera beetles. 

5.  Scaly-winged  or  lepidoptera butterflies  and  moths. 

6.  Two-winged  or  Diptera house-flies  and  mosquitoes. 

7.  Transparent- winged  or  hymenoptera  . .  .bees,  wasps,  sawflies  and  ants. 

NOTE. — The  scientific  names  for  the  above  orders  of  insects  are  accented 
on  the  second  syllable  before  the  last,  thus  :  neu-rop-tera,  or-thop  tera,  etc. 
These  words  are  derived  from  the  Greek  word//m?«,  which  means  a  wing. 


AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS. 

EFFECTS  OF  DISEASE. — House  plants,  especially  those  with 
large  leaves,  often  become  covered  with  small  dark  spots  which 
gradually  become  larger  and  make  holes  in  the  leaves,  which 
soon  die.  We  can  see  the  same  on  the  leaves  of  the  apple  tree, 
the  pear  tree,  and  can  also  find  them  on  the  leaves  of  the  shade 
trees.  This  spotting  of  the  leaves  is  a  disease.  We  can  find 
similar  diseases  on  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  grain. 

When  plants  become  diseased,  they  lose  some  of  their 
vitality,  as  we  say,  and  we  need  not  look  for  much  fruit  or 
grain.  It  is  therefore  of  importance  that  disease  among  plants 
be  prevented,  just  as  we  try  to  prevent  sickness  of  animals, 
or  of  ourselves. 

Again,  in  addition  to  the  disease  attacking  the  leaf,  the 
branch,  the  stalk,  or  the  root,  it  may  attack  the  fruit.  You 
have  seen  the  brown  and  black  spots  or  scabs  on  the  apple  and 
the  pear ;  you  have  seen  the  ear  of  corn  all  overgrown  with  smut, 
and  the  heads  of  wheat  and  other  grains  covered  with  a  dirty 
growth ;  you  have  seen  the  potatoes  affected  by  the  "scab" 
and  the  "  rot."  All  of  these  are  cases  of  disease.  Whenever 
the  plant  is  diseased  in  any  part  the  fruit  or  the  seed 
will  be  found  to  be  either  small  and  of  a  poor  shape  or 
else  entirely  useless.  Scabby  apples,  smutty  corn,  and 
potatoes  affected  with  the  "rot"  are  not  salable,  they  are  of  no 
use,  in  fact  they  are  harmful.  Why  are  they  harmful  ?  In  the 
first  place,  such  food  is  not  wholesome.  Further,  we  know 
that  very  often  one  animal  will  take  disease  from  another — 
scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  small-pox,  and  even  influenza,  ora  "cold" 


THE  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS.  89 

will  pass  from  one  person  to  another.  It  is  so  with  the  diseases 
of  plants.  If  potato  "  rot"  gets  a  start  it  will  go  from  potato  to 
potato  until  all  are  affected. 

If  we  allow  smut  to  stay  in  the  corn  field  it  will  spread.  If 
a  cherry  or  plum  tree  has  black-knot  the  disease  will  soon  at- 
tack the  other  trees  until  all  are  killed  or  nearly  killed,  and  no 
good  fruit  results.  This  point,  therefore,  we  should  firmly  fix 
in  our  minds,  that  whenever  disease  appears  upon  a  plant  we 
should  first  of  all  try  to  prevent  it  from  spreading  by  destroying 
the  diseased  part,  or,  if  necessary,  the  whole  plant.  And  there 
is  only  one  effective  way  of  destroying  disease  in  plants,  and 
that  is  by  burning.  It  will  not  do  to  cut  off  a  black-knot  limb 
from  a  cherry  tree  and  throw  it  in  the  fence  corner  or  on  the 
brush  heap.  The  disease  will  spread  from  the  cut  off  branch. 
It  should  be  burned  up.  So  with  the  peach  tree  affected  by 
"the  yellows."  Once  the  disease  has  started  it  is  useless  to  try 
to  cure  it  or  to  remedy  it.  The  diseased  tree  or  plant  or  the 
diseased  part  should  be  destroyed.  But  we  can  prevent  it  from 
spreading,  if  we  take  action  in  time.  Substances  and  methods 
used  for  preventing  the  spread  of  the  disease  are  called  "pre- 
ventives." 

NATURE  OF  DISEASE. — If  we  begin  with  a  giant  oak  or 
white  pine  and  arrange  the  plants  known  to  us  in  order  of  size 
down  to  the  smallest  grass  plant,  only  a  couple  of  inches  high, 
or  the  still  smaller  moss,  we  shall  take  in  a  great  many  plants, 
but  not  all.  There  are  very  many  others  still  smaller  and 
much  simpler  in  their  form  and  mode  of  growth.  Perhaps 
you  have  observed  the  greyish  lichen  growing  on  the  old 
fence  rails  or  on  the  side  of  a  boulder.  It  is  not  much  thicker 
perhaps  than  this  paper  and  yet  it  is  a  kind  of  plant — it  is 
one  of  the  lower  orders  of  plants.  Then  you  have  seen  the 
blue  mold  or  fungus  on  the  side  of  a  cheese,  it  also  is  a  low  form 
of  plant  life.  The  smut  growing  in  the  ear  of  corn,  the 
rot  of  the  potato,  the  rust  of  wheat,  and  the  other  forms  of 
7 


AGRICULTURE. 


spores  (seeds),  which  will  settle  on  other  leaves, 
and  thus  cause  the  spread  of  the  disease.  A 
ragged  hole  will  remain  in  the  leaf,  usually  brown 
in  color  on  the  margin 


disease  in  vegetation  are  all  minute  plants.   These  lower  forms  of 

plants   live  in  and  upon  the  higher  plants,  taking  the  food 

out  of  the  plants  and 

thereby    checking 

their  growth  and  even 

killing  them.    Where 

did  they  come  from  ? 

The  field  crops  grow 

from  seeds,  and  when 

they   are  ripe,    they 

produce    Other   Seeds    Fig.  42.— A  diseased  leaf.     The  minute  plant  causing 
disease  is  growing  in  a  leaf  and  is  throwing  off  ripe 

that  will  again  grow. 
Now  these  small 
plants,  these  disease 
plants,  grow  from  tiny  seeds  generally  called  "spores,"  and 
when  they  mature  they  form  other  spores  which  will  be  carried 
about  by  the  wind,  settle  on  other  plants,  start  growing  there, 
and  thus  spread  themselves.  A  small  dark  speck  appears  on 
the  leaf  of  a  house  plant  —the  spore  has  started  to  grow.  The 
speck  grows  to  a  large  spot,  it  soon  becomes  darker,  then  the 
whole  spot  or  scab  breaks  open  — the  spores  are  ripe  and  fall 
off  or  are  blown  away,  and  the  life  of  this  disease  plant  begins 
again  on  another  leaf  or  on  another  plant.  Why  did  we  not 
see  the  spores  at  first  ?  Simply  because  they  were  too  small, 
they  can  be  seen  only  by  a  magnifying  glass  or  a  microscope — 
hence  these  plants  are  sometimes  called  microscopic  plants. 

PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE. — If  we  could  destroy  these  spores 
we  would,  of  course,  prevent  the  growth  of  the  disease  plants. 
In  addition,  therefore,  to  destroying  all  plants  and  parts  of 
plants  known  to  be  diseased,  we  should  use  preventives  when- 
ever we  think  the  disease  is  likely  to  be  started.  The  leaves 
and  stalks  of  house  plants  are  washed  from  time  to  time  in 
order  to  clean  them  from  dust  and  also  to  wipe  off  disease 
spores.  One  of  the  principal  substances  used  for  killing  these 


THE    DISEASES    OF    PLANTS. 


spores  in  the  case  of  trees  and  shrubs  is  bluestone  (also  known 
as  sulphate  of  copper).  When  the  fruit  grower  sprays  his  trees 
to  check  disease  on  the  branches  or  leaves  or  fruit  he  uses  a 
solution  of  bluestone.  Sometimes  he  makes  a  mixture  of  Paris 
green  and  bluestone,  the  Paris  green  being  to  kill  all  insects 
that  eat  the  leaves,  and  the  bluestone  to  destroy  the  spores  or 


Fig.  43. — Two  forms  of  minute  plants  growing  in  leaves  and  in  fruit 
of  plants,  causing  disease  ot"  plants.     Very  much  enlarged. 

seeds  of  disease.  There  are  so  many  different  forms  of  disease 
(rusts,  smuts,  mildews,  blights,  etc.)  that  we  have  not  space  to 
mention  them.  But  we  shall  here  give  only  the  simplest  modes 
of  preventing  disease.  Smut,  in  growing  wheat,  generally  comes 
from  wheat  that  has  grown  in  fields  where  smut  existed  the  year 
before,  that  is,  the  wheat  when  sown  had  the  spores  of  smut 
already  in  the  grain.  The  disease  then  can  be  prevented  by 
destroying  the  spores  in  the  seed  that  is  sown.  Make  a  solution 
of  one  pound  of  bluestone  or  copper  sulphate  in  twenty-four 
gallons  of  water.  Soak  the  grain  to  be  sown  in  this  solution  for 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours.  Then  the  seed  may  be  dipped  in 
lime  water  for  five  minutes.  After  being  thus  treated  it  may  be 
sown  and  no  smut  will  appear.  Sometimes  the  spores  of  smut 


Q2  AGRICULTURE. 

on  the  seed  wheat  are  killed  by  dipping  it  into  hot  water  shortly 
before  sowing,  but  the  bluestone  treatment  is  preferred. 

The  potato  tubers  are  sometimes  found  to  be  covered  with  a 
rough  scurf.  On  cutting  the  potato  it  will  be  found  to  be  affect- 
ed also  under  the  skin.  This  roughness  is  the  result  of  a 
disease  called  the  potato  scab.  If  scabby  potatoes  are  planted 
the  tubers  produced  from  them  will  be  scabby,  and  if  clean 
potatoes  are  planted  in  the  ground  where  scabby  potatoes  were 
lately  grown,  the  new  crop  will  likely  be  scabby.  The  best  rule 
to  follow,  then,  is  to  plant  only  perfectly  clean  potatoes  in  ground 
where  no  scabby  potatoes  were  previously  grown.  Some  success 
has  been  had  from  rolling  scabby  potatoes  in  sulphur  before 
planting,  but  it  is  much  more  satisfactory  to  destroy  the  scabby 
potatoes  and  plant  only  clean  tubers  in  clean  ground. 

The  rot  or  blight  of  potatoes  is  quite  a  different  disease, 
produced  by  a  different  fungus.  Different  names  for  this 
disease  are  rot,  blight,  and  downy  mildew.  It  is  also  called 
"  late  blight,"  because  there  is  a  somewhat  similar  disease  that 
attacks  the  plants  earlier  in  the  season  called  "  early  blight." 
The  potato  leaves  show  brown  spots.  These  spread  rapidly, 
especially  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  moist.  The  under  sides 
of  the  leaves  soon  become  covered  with  a  light  colored  growth ; 
these  are  the  spores  or  seeds  growing  on  tiny  threads.  The 
spores  appear  to  fall  to  the  ground  and  by  rains  are  washed 
through  until  they  reach  the  tubers,  to  which  they  at  once 
attach  themselves  and  then  begin  their  growth.  Then  the  rot 
ing  of  the  potato  begins. 

It  is  thought  by  some  that  the  disease  in  some  way  reaches 
the  tubers  by  way  of  the  stem.  It  may  be  that  the  disease  is 
transmitted  from  the  leaves  to  the  tubers  in  both  ways.  To 
prevent  the  spread  of  this  disease  the  growing  plants  are  sprayed 
or  sprinkled  with  a  solution  of  bluestone  (sulphate  of  copper). 
The  disease  is  sometimes  called  a. fungus  (plural,  fungi),  hence 
the  preventive  is  called  a.  fungicide. 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS.  93 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  ROTATION. — If  we  get  a  large  yield  of  any 
crop  from  a  certain  field,  should  we  not  grow  the  same  crop 
year  after  year  ?  This  is  done,  for  instance,  on  the  rich  prairie 
soils,  where  wheat  has  been  grown  year  after  year  upon  the 
same  soil.  In  former  times  this  was  done  also  on  our  soils 
when  they  were  new  and  rich.  But  what  has  been  the  result  ? 
The  soils  of  many  farms  have  run  down  and  good  crops  are 
got  only  by  heavy  manuring.  In  the  best  farmed  countries  of 
Europe,  where,  after  the  experience  of  hundreds  of  years, 
larger  yields  of  wheat  and  other  crops  are  obtained  than 
we  get  in  Canada,  it  has  been  found  advisable  to  change  the 
crops  grown  from  year  to  year.  The  experience  of  Europe  and 
of  Canada  both  prove  that  the  best  farmers  succeed  in  crop 
growing  only  by  rotating  or  changing  their  crops. 

REASONS  FOR  ROTATION. — i.  The  different  crops,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  all  made  up  of  the  same  elements,  and  take  up 
food  from  the  soil ;  but  they  do  not  all  take  up  soil  food 
of  the  same  amount  or  in  the  same  form.  Thus  the  potato, 
tobacco,  and  fruit  trees  require  a  great  deal  of  potash ; 
the  grain  crops  take  up  more  phosphates.  The  crops  differ 
in  their  feeding  just  as  animals  differ.  The  dog  does  not 
eat  just  what  the  cat  does,  nor  the  horse  just  whit  the  pig 
does.  If  cattle  and  sheep  are  pastured  together,  the  sheep 
will  pick  out  certain  weeds  and  grasses,  and  the  cattle  may 
prefer  others.  Wheat,  for  instance,  requires  nitrates  as  one 


94  AGRICULTURE. 

of  its  most  important  foods,  and  if  we  grow  wheat  year  after 
year  we  may  soon  exhaust  the  nitrates  available;  but  if  we  grow 
wheat  one  year  and  some  other  crop  the  next,  the  second 
crop  may  be  able  to  feed  well  and  flourish  upon  food  left  by  the 
wheat. 

2.  The  plants  have  different  methods  or  powers  of  getting 
the  same  kind  of  food.     Thus  clover  or  peas  will  get  nitrogen 
by  means  of  the  little  knots  or  tubercles  (page  57)  upon  their 
roots,  whereas  wheat  has  not  this  power  to  take  up  free  nitrogen. 
A  clover  crop  will  need  more  nitrogen  than  a  crop  of  wheat, 
and  yet,  because  of  the  root  tubercles,  we  do  not  apply  nitrates 
to  a  clover  crop,  but  nitrates  may  be  applied  to  wheat  with 
good  results. 

3.  The  plants  have  different  kinds  of  roots.     Those  of  barley 
are  very  short,  those  of  wheat  longer,  those  of  red  clover  and 
lucerne  still  longer.     A  deep-rooted  crop  feeds  lower  down  than 
a  shallow-rooted  crop.     If,  then,  we  grow  clover  this  year  and 
wheat  the  next,   we  grow  these  crops,  to  a  great  extent,  in 
two  different  soils.     We  use  surface  soil  for  one  and  under-soil 
or  sub-soil  for  the  other.     By  changing  from  a  shallow-rooting 
crop  to  a  deep-rooting,  or  from  a  deep-rooting  to  a  shallow- 
rooting,  we,  as  it  were,  change  the  soil  from  year  to  year.    This 
is  one  of  the  most  important  points  to  observe  in  rotating  crops. 

4.  By  rotating  crops  we  change  the  treatment  of  the  same 
soil,  since  we  do  not  treat  the  soil  exactly  alike  in  preparing  it 
for  different  crops.     Some  crops,  also,  are  cultivated  and  others 
are  not.     We  thus  give  the  weeds  different  treatment.     The 
weeds  differ  as  do  the  crops — there  are  annuals,  biennials  and 
perennials  ;  there  are  long-rooted  and  shallow-rooted  ;  there  are 
early  seeding  and   late  seeding  weeds.     The  same  treatment 
year  after  year  may  be  just  the  right  treatment  to  encourage 
certain   weeds  to  grow  and   spread.     The  growing  of  wheat 
year  after  year  in  the  west  is  causing  the  spread  of  some  very 
noxious  weeds.     By  changing  the  crops,  and  therefore  the  treat- 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  95 

ment  of  the  soil,  we  do  not  give  the  weeds  so  good  a  chance  to 
rob  the  crops  and  infest  the  fields. 

5.  The  insects  also  make  their  homes  on  certain  crops  and 
in  the  ground.     By  rotating  the  crops  we  disturb  the  insects 
and  help  to  keep  them  in  check.     If  we  remove  the  food  of 
the  insects,  bury  them  or  their  eggs  deep  in  the  soil,  or  turn 
them  up  to  the  frost  we  are  helping  to  destroy  them. 

6.  Some  crops  mature  early  in  the  year,  as  fall  wheat  and 
barley ;  others  late  in  the  fall,  as  corn  and  roots.     Some  are  in 
the  ground  but  a  short  time,  others  for  a  long  time,  and  so 
they  have  different  lengths  of  time  for  feeding.     It  is  often 
helpful  to  have  a  long-feeding  crop  followed  by  a  short-feeding 
crop,  as  in  the  case  of  roots  followed  by  barley. 

We  may  then  sum  up  by  saying  that  crops  differ  : 

As  to  the  kind  of  food  which  they  take  up  ; 

As  to  the  amount  of  different  foods  which  they  take  up  ; 

As  to  the  length  of  their  feeding  roots  ; 

As  to  the  length  of  time  that  they  are  feeding  ; 

As  to  the  treatment  we  give  them  (cultivated  or  not) ; 

As  to  the  weeds  that  associate  with  them  ; 

As  to  the  insects  that  infest  them  ; 

For  these  and  other  reasons  the  best  farmers  always  pay 
careful  attention  to  the  proper  rotation  of  their  crops. 

SAMPLES  OF  ROTATION. — Let  us  take  what  is  called  a  four- 
year  or  four-course  rotation — turnips,  barley,  clover,  wheat. 
The  first  crop  requires  thorough  cultivation  and  gives  a  chance 
to  manure  heavily  for  the  entire  course.  Turnips  are  bi- 
ennials, and  therefore  long-growing,  feeding  until  late  in  the 
year.  Then  comes  a  shallow-rooted,  quick-growing  crop  of 
an  entirely  different  nature.  The  clover  at  once  follows  barley 
and  sends  its  roots  deep.  It  feeds  upon  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  air  in  the  soil  through  its  root  tubercles,  and  when 
plowed  in  leaves  a  large  quantity  of  material  in  the  roots  and 
stubble  to  make  food  for  the  wheat.  The  manure  applied  with 


96  AGRICULTURE. 

the  roots  has  by  this  time  been  well  worked  over.  Last  comes 
the  wheat  with  roots  of  medium  length,  feeding  in  the  fall 
and  spring  and  coming  to  maturity  in  the  summer  of  the 
fourth  year.  A  variety  of  crops  for  the  farmer's  use  is  at  the 
same  time  obtained. 

Here  are  some  other  rotations  that  may  be  examined  : 

1.  Wheat         i.  Barley         i.  Wheat         i.  Barley 

2.  Hay  2.   Hay  2.  Hay  2.  Hay 

3.  Hay  3.  Pasture       3.  Pasture       3.  Oats 

4.  Pasture        4.  Corn  4.  Pasture        4.  Peas 

5.  Oats  5.  Oats  5.  Oats  5.  Corn 

6.  Peas  6.  Peas  6.  Peas 

7.  Roots          7.  Corn 

The  system,  of  course,  must  be  suited  to  the  soil,  the  kind 
of  farming  adopted,  and  the  circumstances  of  the  farmer. 
Rotations  may  have  to  be  changed  from  time  to  time,  but,  if 
the  principles  upon  which  rotations  are  based  are  well 
understood,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  making  changes,  and 
in  forming  rotations  suitable  to  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the 
farm.  The  four-course  rotation  may  be  taken  as  a  basis,  and 
changes  made  to  lengthen  it ;  thus  corn  may  be  put  in  place 
of  roots,  and  barley  may  be  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy^  and 
a  year  or  two  of  hay  and  pasture,  or  both,  may  be  had  before 
returning  to  a  cereal  crop.  If  the  soil  is  the  farmer's  capital, 
then  growing  the  same  crop  year  after  year  leaves  part  of  the 
capital  idle.  Rotating  the  crops  causes  all  of  the  capital  to  do 
its  share  in  turn  in  producing  income,  and,  it  may  be,  in 
increasing  the  amount  of  capital. 


THE   GARDEN,  97 


PART  IV. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


THE  GARDEN. 

"  A  small  garden  well-kept  will  produce  more  than  a  large  garden  neglected." 

SELECTION  OF  GARDEN  PLOT. — The  garden  plot  should  be 
near  the  house,  and  at  one  side  rather  than  in  front  of  the 
house.  A  neat,  dry  walk  should  lead  to  it.  A  loamy 
soil,  well  drained,  and  well  manured  will  be  suited  to  the 
crops  required.  If  it  is  long  and  narrow  in  shape  rather  than 
square,  much  of  the  cultivation  may  be  done  by  horse  help. 
A  wind-break  or  shelter-belt  of  spruce  or  other  trees  will  add 
to  the  appearance  as  well  as  to  the  value  of  the  garden. 

GARDEN  CROPS. — In  every  farmer's  garden  there  may  be 
grown  the  following  crops  : 

Beets,  Rhubarb,  Strawberries, 

Carrots,  Tomatoes,  Raspberries, 

Potatoes,  Celery,  Currants, 

Parsnips,  Egg-plant,  Gooseberries, 

Radishes,  « Lettuce,  Spinach, 

Cabbages,  Peas,  Sweet  Marjoram, 

Cauliflowers,  Beans,  Thyme, 

Sweet  Corn,  Horse-radish,  Sage, 

Onions,  Cucumbers,  Summer  Savory, 

Asparagus,  Pumpkins,  Parsley, 

Salsify,  Melons,  Garden  Mint. 

Much  that  has  been  said  about  field  crops,  their  mode  of 
growth,  and  their  enemies,  both  insects  and  diseases,  will  ap- 


98  AGRICULTURE. 

ply  to  the  crops  of  the  garden.  More  may  be  learned  by 
working  among  the  plants  growing  in  the  garden,  and  at  the 
same  time  using  your  eyes. 

What  parts  of  the  following  plants  do  we  use  as  food  ?  Common  rad- 
ishes, horse-radish,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  lettuce,  celery,  artichokes, 
onions,  asparagus,  potatoes,  rhubarb,  and  spinach. 

Explain  the  bleaching  out  of  celery  by  banking  up.  Will  the  stalks 
bleach  out  if  grown  on  the  level  close  together  ? 

What  is  the  difference  between  top-onions,  potato  onions  and  onion  sets? 

Is  lettuce  an  annual  or  a  biennial  ? 

Classify  the  crops  given  above  as  annuals,  biennials  and  perennials. 

Are  all  the  blossoms  on  a  cucumber  vine  alike  ?  Which  produce  fruit  ? 
Is  the  cucumber  plant  monoecious  or  dioecious?  See  page  70. 

THE  STRAWBERRY. — If  you  pull  off  the  petals  of  a  rose 
blossom  you  find  the  stalk  on  which  it  grew  is  somewhat 
enlarged  at  the  end.  This  little  swollen  end  is  called  the 
"receptacle."  In  the  case  of  the  strawberry  which  we  eat,  we 
see  a  large  number  of  small  hard  grains  in  little  pits  on  the 
surface  of  the  soft,  fleshy  fruit.  If  the  hard  grains  were  large 
enough  we  could  open  them,  and  see  that  each  one  is  a  little 
seed.  The  part  we  find  so  pleasant  to  eat,  then,  is  not  the 
seed.  What  is  it?  By  examining 
the  stalks  bearing  green  berries  as 
well  as  those  bearing  ripe  berries, 
we  observe  that  it  is  the  swollen  end 
of  the  stem,  that  is  the  receptacle. 
If  a  ripe  berry  is  cut  in  two,  the 
seeds  will  be  found  to  be  connected 
with  the  stalk.  The  strawberry 
plant  is  a  member  of  the  rose  family 
(rosacece)  to  which  belong  a  large 

Fig.  44— A  strawberry  plant  V 

properly  set  out.  number  of  our  common  fruit-bearing 

plants,  as  well  as  some  other  common  plants,  such  as  the  plum, 
the  cherry,  the  strawberry,  the  raspberry,  the  blackberry,  the 
wild  rose,  the  hawthorn,  the  pear,  the  apple,  the  quince. 


THE   GARDEN. 


99 


Compare  the  leaves  and  blossoms  of  the  strawberry,  the  apple,  and  the 
wild  rose  ;  also  the  fruit  of  the  hawthorn,  the  wild  rose,  and  the  mountain 
ash.  Observe  how  the  leaves  are  arranged  on  the  branches.  At  what 
place  do  the  blossoms  appear  ?  How  many  petals  in  every  blossom? 

In  a  patch  of  wild  strawberries  you  find  that  the  plants 
spread  in  all  directions,  that  the  fruit  is  small  in  size  and  small 
in  quantity  in  comparison  with  the  large  amount  of  leaves  and 
runners.     Most  of  the  plant  food 
is    being    used   up    in    forming 
runners  and  leaves.     If  we  wish 
fruit  large  in  size  and  large  in 
quantity  we  must  plant  improved 
varieties  in   rows  at  least   three 
feet  apart,  and  we   must   keep 
the  space  between  the  rows  clean  of  weeds  and  runners. 

The  strawberry  is  a  perennial,  but  as  the  plants  have  been 
developed  by  cultivation  and  selection  they  tend  to  go  back  to 
their  original  habit  of  producing  small  berries.  Therefore  it  is 
best  to  grow  fruit  only  on  young  plants.  The  plants  send  out 
runners  which  take  root  and  form  new  plants,  and  the  best 
berries  are  on  these  new  plants.  The  old  plants  soon  become 
of  little  value.  Therefore  the  beds  must  be  renewed. 

If  you  examine  the  blossoms  of  many  kinds  or  varieties  of 
strawberries  you  will  find  that  those  of  some  are  perfect,  that 


Fig-  45-— A  strawberry  plant  repro- 
ducing by  a  "  runner." 


fig.  46  —A  perfect  strawberry 
blossom  having  both  pistils 
and  stamens. 


Fig.  47. — An  imperfect  straw- 
berry blossom  having  pistils, 
but  not  stamens. 


is,  they  have  both  pistils  and  stamens  (fig.  46) ;  these  will  of 
themselves  produce  fruit.     The  blossoms  of  others,  however, 


100  AGRICULTURE. 

are  imperfect,  they  have  pistils  but  no  stamens  (fig.  47) ;  these 
will  not  form  fruit,  unless  pollen  from  perfect  blossoms  is 
brought  to  them  by  the  wind  or  by  insects.  Some  of  the  best 
producing  varieties  of  strawberries  have  imperfect  blossoms ; 
they  are  pistillate  varieties  and  if  we  wish  them  to  produce 
good  crops  we  must  plant  alongside  of  them  some  plants  of 
varieties  bearing  perfect  blossoms.  This  is  very  important  and 
should  be  well  understood.  In  some  of  the  varieties  of  fruit 
trees  also,  the  blossoms  are  either  imperfect  or  else  able  to 
fertilize  themselves  only  with  difficulty,  and  the  planting  of 
varieties  whose  blossoms  produce  an  abundance  of  pollen  is  of 
great  help. 

RASPBERRIES. — When  you  pull  off  a  strawberry,  part  of  the 
stem  comes  with  it,;  but  when  you  pull  off  a  raspberry,  it  comes 
away  freely  from  the  stem,  leaving  a  pointed  end.  This  is 
because  the  receptacle  or  end  of  the  stem  is  the  fleshy  part  of 
the  strawberry,  whereas  the  raspberry  is  a  collection  of  soft 
fruits  distinct  from  the  receptacle.  In  the  case  of  the  straw- 
berry, we  eat  the  end  of  the  swollen  stalk  ;  in  the  case  of  the 
raspberry,  we  eat  a  cluster  of  fruits  like  small  cherries. 

The  roots  of  raspberries  are  perennial  and  the  canes  are 
biennial.  Thus,  canes  grow  up  one  year,  bear  fruit  the  second 
year,  and  then  die.  Therefore,  in  pruning  the  bushes  we  cut 
away  all  the  canes  as  soon  as  they  are  done  fruiting,  and  save 
the  new  canes  for  next  year's  fruiting. 

The  bushes  are  increased  or  propagated  by  suckers  or  by 
the  tips.  The  suckers,  which  grow  up  from  the  roots,  are 
removed  by  cutting  away  below  the  soil  and  then  set  out  as 
new  plants.  The  tips  of  the  canes  are  bent  over  and  buried 
in  earth,  when  they  take  root.  The  red  varieties  are  propagated 
by  means  of  suckers  or  root  cuttings ;  the  black-cap  and  purple 
cane  varieties  by  the  tips. 


E  '•=   = 


THE   GARDEN. 


101 


Fig.  48.— A  gooseberry, 
showing  seeds,  S,  at- 
attached  to  skin  at  P. 


GOOSEBERRIES. — Our  garden  varieties  have  been  developed 
from  natives  of  Europe  and  of  America. 
Fig.  48  shows  a  fruit  cut  across  containing 
the  seeds,  which  are  fastened  to  the  skin 
by  little  threads.  The  form  is  similar  to 
that  of  a  grape.  New  bushes  or  plants 
are  produced  by  layers  and  cuttings.  In 
layering,  a  branch  is  bent  over,  a  little 
notch  cut  in  the  under  side  where  it  will 
be  under  ground,  then  bent  down  and  covered  with  soil, 
leaving  the  tip  above  ground.  After  a 
little,  roots  will  appear  near  the  notch, 
and  later  on  the  branch  may  be  cut 
from  the  bush  and  a  new  plant  will 
thus  be  started.  In  using  cuttings, 
good  thrifty  stems  or  branches  about 
six  inches  long  are  cut  in  the  fall  or 
early  in  spring  and  set  out  with  the  top 
bud  just  above  ground.  These  are 
covered  for  the  winter.  The  next 
year  they  form  good  roots,  and  the 
following  year  may  be  set  out  in  rows. 
To  prevent  suckers,  the  buds  below  ground  are  rubbed  off. 

Seedlings  of  all  the  berries  may  be  obtained  by  rubbing  up 
the  ripe  fruits  with  sand  to  separate  the  seeds  and  pulp.  The 
sandy  seed  is  sown  on  the  surface  of  a  finely  worked  bed,  well 
enriched  with  decayed  manure.  The  soil  is  kept  shaded  and 
wet  with  a  fine  spray.  The  plants  are  afterwards  pricked  out 
in  another  bed  with  mpre  room  and  allowed  to  fruit  to  test. 

CURRANTS. — These  are  grown  very  much  as  we  grow  goose- 
berries. Most  of  our  varieties  belong  to  three  classes  : 

i.  The  Flowering  Currant,  which  is  grown  as  an  ornamental 
shrub.  Its  sweet-scented  yellow  flowers  appear  early  in  the 
spring.  The  fruit  is  black  and  of  decided  flavor  or  taste.  By 


Fig.  49  —Reproducing  plants 
by  layering.  A  is  br.inch 
bent  over  and  buried,  held 
down  by  stake  B.  New 
shoots  C  start  up,  which  are 
then  cut  off  from  parent 
plant  at  D. 


102  AGRICULTURE. 

cultivation,  it  may  be  used  in  the  future  as  a  fruit  producer. 

2.  The   Black   Currant,  which   came   from   Europe.     The 
fruit  is  black,  and  has  a  peculiar  odor. 

3.  The  Red  Currant,  with  berries  red  and  white. 
ENEMIES  OF   GARDEN   CROPS. — In   connection   with   field 

crops  we  referred  to  the  enemies  under  two  heads — insects 
and  diseases.  These  enemies  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  gar- 
den, and,  as  garden  crops  are  relatively  more  valuable  than 
field  crops,  they  should  be  watched  very  closely.  Many  of  the 
field  insects  will  be  found  in  the  garden,  especially  the  many 
small  insects  called  by  the  general  name  "flies,"  which,  of 
course,  are  quite  different  from  our  house  flies.  Then  there  are 
caterpillars  of  many  sizes  and  colors,  some  of  which  closely 
resemble  or  "  imitate  "  in  color  the  plants  on  which  they  feed. 
A  very  common  enemy  is  the  cutworm.  Frequent  cultivation 
and  the  turning  up  of  the  soil  will  bring  them  to  light.  The 
birds  will  pick  them  up.  Diseases  are  the  second-class  of 
enemies,  which  appear  in  so  many  forms,  variously  named  rust, 
leaf  blight,  anthracnose,  mildew.  Strawberries,  for  example, 
are  greatly  injured  in  producing  fruit  because  of  leaf-blight. 
Spraying  with  sulphate  of  copper  (Bordeaux  mixture)  before 
the  fruit  begins  to  enlarge  will  check  it.  In  the  diseases  of 
currants,  gooseberries,  etc.,  the  same  may  be  used.  Full 
instructions  as  to  what  to  use  and  how  to  apply  the  various 
preventives  may  be  got  in  the  bulletins  of  the  various  Depart- 
ments of  Agriculture.  All  that  need  be  said  here  is  that  thrifty 
plants  grown  in  well-tilled  soil,  kept  clean  from  weeds  and 
rubbish,  and  properly  fertilized,  are  least  likely  to  be  attacked 
by  disease. 

EARTHWORMS. — These  must  not  be  confused  with  cut- 
worms, wireworms,  and  other  insects  that  destroy  crops. 
Earthworms  play  a  very  important  part  in  working  over  soil 
and  in  producing  fine  mold.  Their  effect  may  be  noticed 
especially  in  lawns.  They  come  to  the  surface  at  night  and 
after  rains,  bringing  up  soil  from  beneath. 


THE   APPLE   ORCHARD. 


103 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


.         , 

;  c>  the  ca'vx  enQ  '•  /->  the  PU|P- 


THE  APPLE  ORCHARD. 

THE  APPLE.  —  Let  us  take  a 
fair-sized  apple  of  good  shape,  cut 
it  through  as  shown  in  fig.  50. 
We  see  that  the  stem  is  con- 
nected with  the  core,  and  beyond 
it  at  C  are  the  small  ends  of  what 
appear  to  be  leaves.  These  are 
the  ends  of  the  calyx  leaves.  The 
core  is  the  seed  box  ;  it  is  made 

Up    Of    hard,    tOUgh,    fibrOUS    ma-  F'g-     S°-       Section  .of   a     fully   formed 

apple.     A,  seeds  in   seed-'  ox  or  core, 

terial,  E,  in  which  are  the  seeds,  - 

A.      If  you    cut   another  apple 

across  the  core  you  see  the  five 

seed  boxes.     The  apple,  then,  is 

firmly  attached  to  the  branches 

by  the  stem  which  is  closely  con- 

nected with  the  core.     The  part 

j'\  outside  of  the  core,  is  made 

up  of  the  enlarged  stem  and  the  ta.SfS.5S 

lower   and  thicker  portion   of  the   calyx   leaves   which   have 

closed   over  the  seed   forming   portion   of  the  blossom  (the 

ovary),  and  have  become  thick  and  juicy.     What  we  eat,  then, 

is   really   the   leaf  portion   of  the   blossom,   united  with  the 

swollen  stem.     Cut  a  thin  slice  across  the  apple  and  hold  it 

up  to  the  light  —  you  will  observe  five  parts  somewhat  resem- 

bling the  blossom  of  the  apple.     Frequently  the  five  tips  of 

the   leaves  at  C  are  easily  observed.      The   relation   of  the 

apple  to  the  blossom  is  now  known. 


104  AGRICULTURE. 

SEEDLINGS. — If  we  plant  some  apple  seeds,  plants  will 
spring  up  that,  after  a  few  years,  will  become  trees  and  bear 
fruit.  These  trees  are  known  as  "  seediings."  But,  what  at 
first  appears  strange,  they  are  not  likely  to  bear  apples  similar 
to  the  apple  from  which  we  took  the  seeds  ;  in  fact,  the  apples 
may  be  of  little  use.  And  why  so  ?  Because  the  apple,  in  its 
wild  or  native  form,  has  a  small,  rather  poor  fruit,  and  the 
many  varieties  have  been  produced  by  careful  cultivation  and 
selection.  In  this  way  varieties  are  obtained  that  are  different 
in  their  hardiness  and  different  in  shape,  size,  color,  and  flavor. 
As  is  the  case  with  other  plants,  while  we  develop  them  for 
producing  fine  fruit  they  frequently  become  more  tender  in 
stem  and  roots,  and,  therefore,  the  nurseryman  has  to  use  great 
skill  in  producing  plants  that  are  both  hardy  and  productive  of 
good  fruit.  If  we  grow  apples  from  seeds  only,  the  hardy 
seedlings  will  grow  to  a  producing  age.  In  this  way  we  can 
obtain  trees  with  hardy  roots,  stems,  and  buds.  If,  now,  we 
can  use  these  roots  and  stems  for  our  trees,  and  at  the  same 
time  cause  them  to  produce  highly-flavored  fruit,  we  shall  get 
trees  such  as  we  desire.  This  may  be  done  by  grafting. 

GRAFTING. — The  hardy  stem  and  root  is  called  the  stock. 
The  part  to  be  grafted  on  to  the  stock  is  called  a  scion.  The 
nurseryman  selects  the  young  seedlings  and  cuts  small 
branches  as  scions  from  the  trees  of  improved  varieties  such 
as  he  wishes  to  produce.  The  scions  are  cut  in  the  late  fall 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  or  in  early  spring  before  the  buds 
start  to  open.  At  that  time  the  branch  is  dormant  or  asleep. 
The  grafting  is  done,  as  root-grafting  or  as  top-grafting,  before 
the  growth  starts  in  the  spring.  In  root-grafting,  the  stock  and 
scion  may  be  cut  across  as  shown  in  Fig.  52.  This  is  called 
whip  or  tongue-grafting,  and  is  the  method  of  cutting  when 
both  are  of  same  size.  When  the  stock  is  large  and  the  scion 
small,  the  latter  is  cut  wedge-shaped,  and  the  former  is  split  so 
as  to  take  in  the  little  wedge  end,  as  in  Fig.  53.  The  scion  is 


THE   APPLE   ORCHARD. 


I05 


placed  in  the  stock  and  the  cuts  are  all  covered  with  grafting 
wax,  which  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  tallow  or  linseed  oil, 


Fi?.  52. — Whip  or  tongue-graft- 
iru  on  root.  Used  also  in  the 
case  of  small  stocks. 


ig-  53.— Grafting  in  cleft  or  split 
limb.  Used  in  the  case  of  'arge 
limbs.  In  very  large  limbs  two 
scions  are  inserted  on  opposite 
sides  cf  the  cleft. 


beeswax,  and  resin  (about  i,  2,  4  parts  by  weight  of  each).  A 
very  important  point  is  to  have  the  layer  just  underneath  the 
bark  (the  cambium  layer)  of  both  stock  and  scion  exactly 
opposite  or  against  each  other.  Why  is  this  important  ?  The 
living  part  of  a  trunk  or  branch  lies  between  the  sapwood  and 
the  bark ;  it  is  the  thin  layer  of  moist  woody  fibre  just  under- 
neath the  bark.  If  we  bring  the  living  layer  of  the  stock  and 
the  living  layer  of  the  scion  together,  the  sap  from  the  one  will 
flow  into  the  other,  and  the  root  and  stem  will  continue  to 
ndurish  the  new  branch.  The  nature  of  the  fruit  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  branch. 

PRUNING.-  The  leaves  and  new  branches  are  formed  before 
the  fruit,  so  that,  if  the  tree  is  inclined  to  become  very  branchy, 
most  of  the  food  may  be  used  up  in  producing  new  wood,  and 
very  little  will  be  left  for  fruit.  Therefore,  in  many  varieties, 
pruning  is  very  important.  The  proper  time  is  to  begin  with 


106  AGRICULTURE. 

the  tree  as  soon  as  set  out,  and  to  prevent  the  growth  of  loo 
many  limbs  by  cutting  off  limbs  when  small  shoots  and  by 
rubbing  off  buds  that  are  not  required.  Limbs  growing  too 
long  may  be  "stopped";  that  is,  pinched  off  at  the  end.  The 
thinning  out  of  fruit  will,  for  the  same  reason,  have  the  effect 
of  producing  larger  fruit. 

FEEDING  THE  TREES. — Three  crops  are  produced  yearly  in 
the  orchard — new  leaves,  new  branches,  new  fruit.  The  tree 
needs  food  for  all  three.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the  land 
drained  so  that  the  roots  can  go  deep  into  the  soil.  Then  the 
surface  soil  must  be  kept  well  cultivated  about  the  young 
trees,  that  the  moisture  may  be  saved  and  the  air  get  into  the 
soil.  But,  in  addition,  food  must  be  supplied,  not  merely  to 
the  young  tree,  but  also  to  the  old  tree  as  long  as  it  is  expected 
to  bear  a  crop.  Wood  ashes  are  the  mineral  or  soil  matter  of 
the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  therefore  we  may  conclude 
that  wood  ashes  are  an  excellent  food  for  fruit  trees  of  all 
kinds.  Wood  ashes  contain  lime,  potash  and  some  phosphates. 
If  any  other  manures  are  applied  they  should  be  such  as  fine 
bones,  which  contain  phosphates  and  lime.  Potash  and  phos- 
phate manures  are  the  proper  food  for  vines  and  trees  produc- 
ing fruit.  The  proper  place  to  apply  such  is,  not  close  around 
the  trunk,  but  beneath  the  ends  of  the  branches.  Why  ? 

SUGGESTIVE  :— 

If  we  plant  the  seed  of  a  northern  spy  apple,  may  we  expect  that  the 
tree  thus  produced  will  also  bear  northern  spy?  How  are  new  varieties 
produced  ?  What  might  be  done  with  a  seedling  apple  tree  that  bears  poor 
iruit  in  order  to  make  it  a  useful  tree?  In  peach-growing,  is  it  best  to 
have  a  large  number  of  small  peaches  or  a  smaller  number  of  large  peaches  ? 
Good  orchardists  now  thin  their  peaches  and  plums.  Why  ? 

Did  you  ever  notice  how  a  wound  made  by  cutting  off  a  branch  of  a  tree 
heals?  If  a  stub  six  inches  long  is  left  it  dies  back,  rots,  and  finally  falls 
away,  leaving  a  hole  in  the  tree  trunk.  If  cut  close  new  wood  grows  over 
the  wound  until,  in  time,  it  is  entirely  covered.  In  pruning,  then,  cut  close 
to  the  main  branch  or  tree  trunk. 

Remember  that  the  tree  itself  is  a  crop,  taking  its  food  from  the  orchard 
soil.  It  is  bad  pract:ce,  therefore,  to  raise  other  crops  such  as  grain  or 
roots  between  the  trees.  This  may  occasionally  be  done  with  good  tillage 
and  good  manuring,  but  more  often  the  trees  are  starved  as  a  result. 


OTHER  ORCHARD  TREES.  1 07 


CHAPTER   XXII. 


OTHER  ORCHARD  TREES. 

THE  PEAR. — We  have  already  stated  that  the  apple,  the 
pear,  and  the  quince  belong  to  the  rose  family.  The  form  of 
their  fruit  with  seed  in  a  hard  box  or  core  shows  their  resem- 
blance. Our  different  varieties  of  pears  have  all  been  derived 
from  the  common  pear  of  Europe  by  cultivation  and  selection. 
These  fruits  all  change  somewhat  with  soil,  climate,  and  treat- 
ment. According  to  the  size  of  the  tree  we  class  pears  as 
"standards"  and  "dwarfs."  The  standards  are  formed  by 
grafting  or  budding  from  the  improved  varieties  on  to  seedlings 
as  stocks.  The  pear  trees  that  are  purchased  for  an  orchard 
are  therefore  first  grown  from  pear  seed  and  then  grafted  or 
budded.  Transplanting  in  the  nursery  induces  a  greater  growth 
of  fibrous  roots  than  if  the  trees  were  kept  growing  in  one 
place.  So  that  better  results  are  sure  to  follow  from  getting 
trees  that  have  been  well  cared  for,  even  if  they  cost  more 
money.  When  trees  are  transplanted  some  of  the  top  is  pruned 
off  and  the  trees  are  cut  back.  Why?  In  transplanting  some 
of  the  roots  are  likely  to  be  damaged,  and  all  are  not  likely  to 
start  work  at  once ;  therefore  the  old  top  would  be  too  large  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  feeding  roots. 

The  dwarf  pear  trees  are  produced  by  budding  on  the 
quince  as  a  stock.  The  quince  will  not  take  the  buds  of  all 
varieties  of  pears,  so  that  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  "double 
work  "  them.  This  is  done  by  budding  on  the  quince  with 
any  pear  bud  that  will  take,  and  then  afterwards  budding  on 
this  pear  stock  with  the  buds  of  the  varieties  desired. 


io8 


AGRICULTURE. 


V 


Budding  is  a  means  of  increasing  very  many  kinds  of  fruits. 
We  have,  under  the  apple,  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  living 
part  of  the  tree  is  on  the  outside,  just  under  the  rough  bark. 

If  a  living  bud  is  taken  from 
one  tree,  by  neatly  cutting  it 
out  with  a  little  of  the  wood 
beneath,  it  may  be  made  to 
grow  if  at  once  placed  in  con- 
tact with  the  similar  living 
part  of  another  tree.  This  is 
done  by  making  a  slit  up  and 
down  and  one  across  the  bark, 
T-shaped.  This  cut  is  opened 
and  the  bud  placed  in  and  the 
bark  lapped  over  it.  The  cut 
and  bud  in  place  are  then 

Fig.  54.   Budding.  carefully  tied  up.     It  will  be 

seen  that  budding  must  be  done  when  the  bark  is  loose  or 
will  slip,  that  is  in  midsummer.  In  the  following  spring  the 
old  growth  above  the  bud  must  be  cut  off,  and  buds  are  rub- 
bed off  below  so  as  to  send  all  the  sap  into  the  new  branch. 

THE  PLUM. — We  now  come  to  the  stone-fruits — the  plum, 
the  peach,  and  the  cherry.  They  differ  from  the  pear  and 
apple  group,  but  they  belong  to  the  large  rose  family.  Exam- 
ine their  blossoms.  We  have  in  America  several  wild  varieties 
of  plums,  from  which  some  of  our  hardier  varieties  are  derived. 
From  the  European  plum  come  our  highly  flavoured  plums. 
As  a  rule  they  are  not  so  hardy  as  the  natives.  A  third  class 
of  plums  is  derived  from  Japanese  varieties.  The  plum  is 
propagated  by  budding  and  grafting.  For  northern  climates 
the  stock  used  should  be  seedlings  or  the  native  wild  plum.  In 
milder  climates  the  peach  is  used  quite  extensively  as  a  stock. 
THE  PEACH  tree  is  not  known  here  in  a  wild  state  ;  it 
has  come  from  Asia  and  is  closely  related  to  the  almond. 


OTHER  ORCHARD  TREES.  109 

The  nectarine  is  quite  similar  with  fruit  of  a  smooth  skin. 
Observe  the  blossom  as  to  shape  and  color.  In  some  vari- 
eties the  stone  clings  to  the  pulp ;  in  others  it  separates  readily 
— hence  the  terms  "  cling-stone  "  and 
"free-stone."  The  peach  ripens  only 
in  a  mild  climate  and  requires  a  warm 
soil,  that  is,  a  light  soil  that  readily 
drains  and  absorbs  heat.  As  the  peach 
trees  mature  or  come  into  blossom 
earlier  than  apples,  they  are  sometimes 
set  out  in  young  apple  orchards.  A 

f  p  ,  i          i          •    i      j    Fig.  55.      Stone  fruit,  a  peach. 

few  crops  of  peaches  can  thus  be  picked 

before  the  apples  come  into  bearing.  When  the  apple  trees 
become  nearly  full  grown  and  begin  to  bear  fair  crops  the 
peach  trees  are  removed.  The  peach  trees  are  increased  by 
budding  on  stocks  of  seedling  peaches  or  on  plums.  Why 
would  you  expect  peach  buds -to  take  on  plums  and  not  on 
pears  or  apples  ?  What  is  the  edible  part  of  the  peach  ?  The 
true  fruit  or  seed  is  inside  of  the  stone.  Crack  one  open  and 
compare  with  an  almond  nut.  You  may  taste  it,  but  do  not 
eat  it.  If  you  take  a  thick  leaf  you  can  peel  off  the  skin  on 
the  upper  side  and  also  the  skin  on  the  under  side.  Between 
these  two  is  the  soft  cell  matter.  The  calyx  leaves  fold  over 
the  inner  part  of  the  blossom,  enclosing  the  seed,  the  inner  side 
of  the  leaves  hardening  to  form  the  stone,  and  the  outer  part 
forming  the  skin  ;  the  soft  material  between  forms  the  part  of 
the  peach  that  we  eat. 

THE  CHERRY. — This  tree  is  sometimes  grown  as  an  orna- 
mental tree ;  sometimes  for  its  wood,  which  has  a  beautiful 
grain  and  takes  a  fine  polish  ;  but  generally  for  its  fruit.  There 
are  very  many  varieties  of  cherries  growing  wild  in  America 
known  by  various  names — dwarf  cherry,  bird  chciry,  choke 
cherry,  wild  red  cherry,  etc.  Most  of  our  garden  varieties  are 
derived  from  two  European  varieties. 


no 


AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  ORCHARD. 

THE  BORER. — This  is  a  beetle  that  does  much  damage  to 
the  trunks  of  trees.  It  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  of  a  shining 
greenish-black  color.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  summer  in  the  rough 
bark  near  the  ground  or  near  the  crotches  of  large  limbs.  From 
these  eggs  come  the  larvae,  which,  when  full-grown,  are  nearly  an 
inch  long.  As  soon  as  hatched  they  begin  to  bore  into  the  tree, 
where  they  remain  one  or  two  years.  From  the  larva  state  they 
pass  into  the  pupa  state,  and  from  this  the  beetle  again  comes 

forth.  If  many  of  these  bore  through 
the  under  bark  and  into  the  living 
wood  they  must  injure  a  tree  just  as  if 
it  were  girdled.  What  is  to  be  done? 
We  can  dig  out  the  borers  and  kill 
them,  but  already  much  damage 
will  have  been  done.  We  can  keep 
the  rough  bark  scraped  off  with  a 
dull  hoe,  so  that  there  will  be  no 
convenient  cracks  and  holes  in  which 
to  place  the  eggs.  We  can  also  give 

Fig.  56.— The  flat-headed  borer— 

a,  the  larva,  b  the  pupa,  d  the      the  trunks  Of  the  trCCS  B  gOOd  COat- 
perfect  beetle.     It  injures  many      . 

kinds  of  trees.  ing  of  whale-oil  soap,  then  soft  soap 

or  whitewash  in  the  spring  and  early  summer.     As  the  bark 
on  young  trees  is  soft  and  the  young  trees  are  most  easily 
injured  we  should  look  out  for  borers  in  young  orchards. 
THE  OYSTER-SHELL  BARK  LOUSE. — On  the  bark  of  the 
apple  tree  are  frequently  seen  little  patches  that  appear  like 


INSECTS   OF   THE   ORCHARD.  Ill 

rough  bark.     If  you  pry  them  up  with  your  penknife  you  find 


Fig-  57. — Bark  covered  with  larvae  of  oyster-shell  bark  lice. 

that  they  are  not  rough  bark,  but  scales.  What  are  these  little 
scales  or  shells  ?  As  the  weather  becomes  warmer  little  white 
insects  come  out  from  under  these  shells,  and  for  a  couple  or 
days  the  bark  swarms  with  life.  Then  they  settle  down,  get 
their  tiny  beaks  into  the  soft  bark,  and  suck  the  sap  of  the 
tree.  At  the  end  of  summer  we  find  the  scales  with  a  nest  ot 
eggs  underneath.  Protected  by  the  scale,  the  eggs  remain 
uptil  next  summer,  when  out  again  come  the  tiny  insects  to 
live  upon  the  sap  of  the  tree.  Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion. 
THE  APHIS. — These  are  to  be  found  on  all  of  our  fruit  trees. 
They  are  noticed  as  green  bugs  less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
long.  They  suck  the  sap  out  of  the  leaves  and  green  bark,  and 
are  sometimes  found  on  the  roots.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
fall  in  the  cracks  of  the  bark,  and  in  the  next  summer  we  are 
surprised  at  the  large  number  of  green  wingless  lice  that  appear 
as  if  by  magic  and  do  so  much  damage  in  a  short  time  (see 
page  83).  Keep  the  bark  clean  and  spray  the  trees  in  the 
spring,  as  soon  as  the  insects  appear,  with  kerosene  emulsion,  a 
diluted  mixture  of  soft-soap  and  coal-oil.  We  have  stated  before, 
page  79,  that  lady-beetles  are  very  destructive  to  plant  lice. 
Different  kinds  of  plant  lice  are  found  on  the  apple,  cherry, 
peach,  currant,  cabbage,  strawberry  roots  and  in  grain.  Since 
they  increase  so  very  rapidly,  spraying  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  the  lice  appear.  House  plants  may  be  washed  with  whale- 
oil  soap  or  tobacco  water. 


112 


AGRICULTURE. 


CATERPILLARS. — We    already  know   that  there  are   many 
kinds  of  caterpillars,  and  that  they  are  larvae  hatched  from 


Fig.  58. — The  tent  caterpillar,  a  and  b  are  caterpillars  on 
the  web,  c  is  a  mass  of  eggs,  d  is  the  cocoon  containing 
the  chrysalis  or  pupa.  The  female  moth  is  above. 

the  eggs  of  moths  and  butterflies.  Tent  caterpillars  live  in 
ngsts  and  strip  the  trees  of  their  leaves.  Any  nests  seen  on 
the  trees  or  bushes  should  be  carefully  removed  and  burned 
whenever  observed.  These  caterpillars  come  out  of  their  nests 


INSECTS    OF   THE   ORCHARD. 


two  or  three  times  a  day  to  feed.  Therefore  we  should  be  care- 
ful to  see  that  they  are  all  at  home  before  the  nests  are  re- 
moved. Spraying  with  Paris  green  will  help  to  destroy  all  leaf- 
eating  caterpillars. 

THE  CODLING  MOTH. — Codling  is  an  old  word  for  a  cook- 
ing apple.  We  know  what  a  moth  is  (see  pages  77  and  78). 
We  have  seen  an  apple  with  a  dark  worm  hole  in  it,  and  we 
have  cut  the  apple  open  and  have  found  the  little  white  worm 
inside.  Now  for  its  history.  In  our  illustration,  fig.  59,  g  is 
the  moth  about  half  an 
inch  across  the  wings. 
The  fore  wings  are  grey, 
the  hind  wings  light 
browji.  As  moths  fly  at 
night  we  are,  perhaps, 
not  so  well  acquainted 
with  it  as  with  the  white 
larva.  The  female  moth 
lays  her  eggs  upon  the 
little  apple  as  it  stands 
up-right.  The  larvae 
that  hatch,  usually  enter 
at  the  blossom  end, 
and  bore  to  the  core 
and  feed  upon  it.  Since 
the  core  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  stem,  the  latter  weakens  and  the  wormy  apples 
are  the  first  to  fall.  After  a  while  the  larva  eats  its  way  out 
and  falls  to  the  ground.  Generally  it  crawls  to  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  and  after  a  little  spins  a  cocoon  from  which  in 
about  two  weeks  the  moth  appears  and  begins  the  laying  of 
eggs.  Many  of  the  larvae  of  this  second  brood  are  taken  to 
the  cellar  in  the  apples.  To  destroy  them  is  important.  All 
wormy  windfalls  should  be  gathered  up  at  once  and  fed  to  the 


Fig.  59. — The  codling  moth,  at  is  the  bur- 
row ;  t,  the  entrance  hole ;  e,  the  larva  ; 
d,  the  pupa ;  /,  moth  at  rest  ;  g,  moth 
with  wings  spread  ;  ft,  head  of  larva ;  », 
cocoon  containing  pupa. 


114  AGRICULTURE. 

pigs.  The  trees  are  sprayed  with  Paris  green  while  the  tiny 
apples  are  still  turned  upwards.  If  we  spray  the  trees  earlier 
for  other  insects  we  must  be  careful  not  to  spray  while  in  full 
bloom,  since  then  we  may  poison  the  bees  that  are  gathering 
honey  and  helping  to  fertilize  the  blossoms  by  carrying  pollen 
from  one  blossom  to  another.  Further,  we  may  injure  the 
blossoms  and  at  that  time  the  codling  moth  has  not  yet  laid 
her  eggs. 

THE  PEAR  TREE  SLUG. — The  perfect  insect  is  a  very 
black  saw-fly,  with  four  wings  of  the  form  shown  in  fig.  36. 
The  female  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long,  the  male  a  little 
r?>«-*»^_*  shorter.  Points  to  be 

noted  are  the  nature 
of  the  wings  and  the 
color  of  the  legs. 
Little  cuts  are  made 

Fig.  60.— The  pear  tree  slug.  in   the  leaf  in  which 

the  eggs  are  laid  about  June.  From  these  the  slugs  are 
hatched,  which  are  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  an  inch  long, 
slimy,  dark  green  in  color.  At  once  they  begin  to  eat  the 
leaves.  The  slugs  change  their  skins  four  or  five  times,  and  in 
about  a  month  they  crawl  or  fall  to  the  ground  and  change  to 
the  pupa  state.  After  two  weeks  more  these  change  to  flies, 
which  are  ready  to  lay  eggs  to  hatch  a  second  brood  early  in 
August.  After  doing  damage  a  second  time  the  larvae  enter 
the  ground  for  the  winter.  In  the  spring  the  flies  appear, 
again  ready  for  destruction.  The  slugs  are  to  be  looked  for 
on  pear  and  on  cherry  trees  in  June  and  again  in  August. 

THE  PLUM  CURCULIO. — The  perfect  insect  is  known  as  a 
weevil  or  snout  beetle.  It  is  dark  in  color,  and  about  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  During  winter  it  remains  hidden 
under  rubbish.  It  comes  out  in  the  spring  and  does  great 
damage  as  the  young  fruit  is  setting.  It  punches  a  little  hole 
in  the  fruit  with  its  snout,  lays  an  egg,  and  then  makes 


INSECTS   OF   THE   ORCHARD. 


a  moon-shaped  cut  in  the  skin  near  the  hole.     If  this  cut  were 

not  made,  what  would  happen  to  the  young  larva  as  the  fruit 

grew  in  size  ?     One  beetle  will 

lay  from  fifty  to  i  oo  eggs.     A 

sort  of  gum  forms  around  the 

hole.     The  stem  of  the  fruit 

soon  weakens,  and  it  drops  to 

the  ground  with  the  larva  in  it 

The  larva  then  comes  out  and 

burrows  into  the  ground.     In 

about  a  month  the  full-grown 

beetle    appears.     Some    fight 

the  CUfCUlio  by  jarring  the  trees  Fig.  61.— The  plum-tree   curculio.    a,    the 

larva  ;   b,   the   pupa :   c,  the    beetle ;    d, 
day     after    day,    early    Or    late,       curculio,  natural  size,  on  young  plum. 

catching  the  insects  in  a  sheet,  and  then  throwing  them  into 
water  covered  with  kerosene.  Paris  green  is  used  in  spraying. 
It  is  applied  several  times  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen. 

OTHER  INSECTS. — New  insects  are  constantly  appearing, 
being  brought  in  from  other  countries  in  fruit  and  nursery 
stock.  When  first  introduced,  these  insects  increase  very 
rapidly,  since  their  natural  enemies  are  not  always  brought 
with  them  at  the  same  time.  Sometimes  they  come  later  on. 


FIR.    62. — Bud  moth.    The  larva    feeds 
upon  young  buds  of  fruit  trees. 


Fig.  63. — Canker  worm,  a,  b,  and  c  are 
egns  ;  e  is  a  mass  of  eggs  ;  /  is  larva 
dark  brown  in  color.  Larv.t  can  drop 
from  tree  by  silk  thread.  They  attack 
apple,  plum,  and  cherry  trees. 


Il6  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORCHARD. 

"  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

FORMS  OF  DISEASE. — The  leaves  and  green  twigs  of  all  the 
orchard  trees  are  affected  by  diseases  which  are  variously 
named  leaf  blight,  leaf  curl,  yellows,  etc.  On  the  branches  of 
plums  and  cherries  we  have  black-knot.  On  the  fruit  we  have 
diseases  called  the  spot,  the  scab,  rust,  etc.  We  know  that 
diseased  fruit,  such  as  spotted  apples,  is,  as  a  rule, 
stunted  in  size  and  distorted  in  shape,  and  is  not  so  salable  as 
well-formed,  clean  fruit.  Diseased  fruit,  also,  will  not  keep  so 
long  as  perfect  fruit.  We  do  not,  perhaps,  realize  that  trees 
whose  roots,  branches,  or  leaves  are  affected  with  disease  will 
not  produce  as  large  crops  as  perfectly  sound  trees.  It  is 
especially  important  that  the  leaves  be  kept  clean  and  thrifty. 

PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE. — The  first  thing  to  be  noted  is 
that  all  old  fruit  trees  or  bushes  that  are  not  bearing  good  crops 
should  be  destroyed.  When  a  tree  becomes  unfruitful  it  will 
be  neglected  and  then  diseases  as  well  as  insects  will  find  a 
home  in  it.  Even  if  at  some  distance  from  other  trees,  all 
such  should  be  cut  down  and  burned,  since  the  spores  of  these 
diseases  are  very  light  and  are  carried  long  distances  by  the 
wind  and  by  insects.  In  the  case  of  black-knot  upon  plums 
or  cherries,  there  is  only  one  course  to  follow — cut  it  off  and 
burn  it.  It  will  not  do  simply  to  cut  it  off  and  throw  it  on  the 
waste  heap ;  the  spores  will  ripen  there  and  spread  to  the  other 
trees.  If  affected  twigs  and  limbs  are  cut  off  as  soon  as  the 
first  signs  of  disease  appear,  we  shall  do  much  to  stop  the 
spread  of  the  disease.  It  may  even  be  found  to  pay  to  cut 


DISEASES   OF  THE  ORCHARD. 


117 


down  a  whole  tree,  since  it  may  save  the  entire  orchard.  We 
must  consider  every  one  of  these  little  knots,  spots,  or  blights 
as  breeders  and  spreaders  of  disease. 

If  a  tree  was  diseased  last  year  the  spores  will  be  left  upon 
the  branches  and  on  the  trunk.     By  spraying  before  the  buds 


Fig.  64. — Disease  in  a  plum 
leaf. 


Fig.  65. — Section  of  a  diseased  plum  leaf,  spores 
bein  t  thrown  off.  a  Spores  very  much  enlarged- 
See  Figs.  42  and  43. 


open  we  prevent  the  spread  of  the  early  growing  spores.  The 
spraying  must  be  repeated  several  times,  as  various  diseases 
start  to  grow  at  different  times.  As  a  rule  the  best  fruit-growers 
combine  their  spraying  for  insects  and  for  diseases — thus  they 
make  a  mixture  of  bluestone  and  of  Paris  green,  the  former  to 
kill  the  disease  spores,  and  the  latter  to  poison  some  of  the 
insects.  One  warning  must  be  repeated,  that  is,  not  to  spray 
with  poison  while  any  tree  is  in  full  bloom,  since  at  that  time 
the  blossoms  may  be  injured,  and  insects,  such  as  bees,  may 
be  killed  that  are  carrying  pollen  from  the  stamens  to  the 
pistils,  thereby  assisting  in  the  fertilization  of  the  blossoms. 


Il8  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


THE  VINEYARD. 

THE  VINE  FAMILY. — The  Virginia  Creeper  and  the  different 
varieties  of  the  grape  vine  together  form  what  is  known  as  the 
vine  family  (vitacece).  These  are  woody  plants  climbing  by 
tendrils.  The  leaves  are  set  one  after  another  (alternate). 
The  flowers  are  small,  greenish,  in  a  cluster  or  bunch.  The 
tendrils  and  flowers  are  opposite  the  leaves.  The  Virginia 
creeper  has  its  leaflets  in  fives,  and  is  thereby  distinguished 
from  poison  ivy,  which  has  its  leaflets  in  threes.  A  bunch  of 
blossoms  like  that  of  the  Virginia  creeper  is  called  a  cyme, 
that  like  the  grape  is  called  a  thyrsus.  Notice  the  form  of  the 
tendrils  of  the  V.  creeper  and  how  they  attach  themselves  to 
wires  and  flat  surfaces.  Are  those  of  the  grape  similar? 

VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES. — The  grapes  grown  under  glass  or 
in  hot-houses  in  this  country  are  quite  different  from  those 
grown  out  of  doors.  They  are  of  different  flavor,  and  the 
former  are  thinner  in  the  skin.  Our  hot-house  grapes  are 
European  varieties.  In  the  woods  we  find  several  varieties  of 
grapes  growing  wild,  with  long  climbing  branches,  bearing 
bunches  of  small  fruit  quite  sour  or  acid.  The  principal  wild 
varieties  are  known  as  the  Northern  Fox,  the  Summer  grape, 
the  white  or  Frost  grape,  and  the  Muscadine  or  Southern 
Fox.  Our  out-of-door  cultivated  varieties  have  been  got 
by  selections  from  these  wild  varieties,  also  by  crossing 
them  with  the  European,  and  by  chance  seedlings  from  all 
varieties.  Most  of  our  edible  grapes  have  been  got  from 
crosses  on  the  Northern  Fox,  and  most  of  our  wine  grapes 
from  crosses  on  the  Frost  grape. 


THE  VINEYARD.  119 

TREATMENT  OF  VINES. — The  soil  for  planting  should  be 
deep,  rich,  and  thoroughly  drained.  Two-year-old  vines  should 
be  set  out,  and  after  the  first  year  only  mineral  fertilizers,  such 
as  ashes  and  bones,  should  be  applied  unless  the  soil  is  poor. 
If  the  winters  are  severe  the  vines  are  laid  down  in  the  fall 
and  covered.  One  of  the  most  important  points  in  connec- 
tion with  grape  growing  is  the"  pruning.  If  left  alone  the  vine 
will  naturally  produce  an  abundance  of  stem,  branches,  and 
leaves.  If  properly  pruned  the  food  taken  in  by  the  roots 
and  the  leaves  goes  to  the  formation  of  fruit.  The  vines  may 
be  trellised  in  various  ways,  depending  upon  the  climate.  In 
mild  climates  where  the  vines  are  left  up  all  winter  they  may 
be  trained  high  and  spread  up  fan-shaped.  In  colder  regions 
one  of  the  best  methods  is  to  lead  one  branch  to  the  right 
and  another  to  the  left  about  a  foot  above  the  ground,  and 
then  train  branches  from  these  up  across  the  wires.  When 
pruned  off  in  the  fall,  they  can  be  easily  laid  down  and  cov- 
ered. The  method  of  pruning  is  easily  learned  from  practice 
with  an  expert.  The  method  depends  upon  this  rule  :  "  The 
fruit  forms  upon  shoots  that  grow  this  year  from  eyes  that 
were  formed  on  the  wood  that  grew  last  year."  All  branches 
growing  too  long  should  be  pinched  at  the  end  or  "  stopped," 
so  as  to  cause  hardy  wood  to  form. 

Grape-vines  are  increased  in  number  by  cuttings,  layering, 
and  grafting.  The  cuttings  are  made  of  the  last  season's 
growth,  and  are  buried  two  buds  deep  in  the  ground.  In  lay- 
ering, a  branch  is  turned  down  and  buried,  when  it  takes  root. 
In  grafting  the  method  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  tree 
grafting,  but  the  scion  is  inserted  close  to  or  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

We  have  stated  before  that  many  of  our  best  varieties  are 
crosses  of  the  fox  grape.  To  understand  this  we  must  examine 
'the  blossom  of  the  vine.  The  blossoms  are  small  and  some- 
what difficult  to  study.  They  are  of  peculiar  shape.  The 


I2O 


AGRICULTURE. 


petals  of  the  blossoms  form  a  sort  of  cap  which  covers  the 
pistils  and  stamens.  As  the  flowers  begin  to  open,  the  petals 
loosen  below  but  remain  connected  above.  In  this  they  differ 
from  the  blossoms  of  the  Virginia  creeper.  When  these  petals 
begin  to  open  the  pollen  flies  off  from  the  stamens  and  falls 
upon  the  pistils,  and  then,  if  the  pistils  are  ready  for  it,  the 
fruit  will  begin  to  form.  In  some  of  the  varieties,  either  the 
pollen  is  not  well  formed  and  distributed,  or  the  pistils  are  not 
ready  for  it,  and  then  fruit  does  not  form.  As  a  consequence 
we  see  bunches  of  small,  imperfect  fruit.  When  such  varieties 
are  grown  alone  little  fruit  may  be  expected. 

\Vhat  is  the  grape  tliat  we  eat?  We  throw  away  the  seeds  and  skin  and 
eat  the  pulp.  Cut  a  grape  across  and  observe  its  structure.  Cut  another 
lengthwise  .'o  as  to  get  a  thia  section  ;  hold  this  up  to  the  light  and 
observe  how  the  seeds  are  placed  and  how  they  ate  attached  to  the  skin 
near  the  one  end.  What  are  raisins  ? 

INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  GRAPE. — Among  the  insects   is 


Fig.  66.— Grape-vine  flea-beetle,     a,  beetle  ;  6,  larva  ;  r,  larvae  and  beetles  on  foliage ; 
d,  injury  to  buds  ;  a  and  b  much  enlarged,  rest  natural  size. 


THE   VINEYARD. 


121 


the  grape-vine  flea-beetle  which  lays  its  eggs  on  the  underside 
of  the  leaves.  Small  brownish  larvae  are  hatched,  which  eat 
the  leaves,  then  drop  to  the  ground  and  change  to  the  pupa 
form,  from  which  in  about  three  weeks  the  perfect  beetle 
emerges.  The  beetles  may  be  collected  by  hand,  and  the 
vines  dusted  with  powder  or  sprayed.  We  also  give  here  one 
of  the  leai-rollers  which  are  found  on  so  many  vines  and  trees. 


Fig.  67. — Grape-vine  leaf  roller,  a,  male  moth;  £,  female;  c,  larva;  t),  head  and 
thoracic  segment  of  same,  enlarged  ;  e,  pupa  ;  jf,  tip  of  pupa,  enlarged  ;  f,  grape 
leaf  folded  by  larva. 

This  grape-vine  leaf-roller  eats  the  leaves.  The  adult  is 
a  dark-colored  moth  with  two  white  spots  on  each  of  the 
two  hind  wings.  The  larva  rolls  up  a  leaf  and  stitches  it 
together,  as  shown  in  figure  67.  Poison  by  spraying  with 
Paris  green  in  water,  applied  in  early  spring. 

The  principal  diseases  of  the  grape  are  mildew  and  black 
rot,  which  are  prevented  by  spraying. 
SUGGESTIVE  : — 

Grape  leaves  are  suitable  objects  to  draw  in  outline.  Notice  the  woolly- 
leaved  Roger's  varieties  (ihe  southern  Fox  grape)  and  a'so  the  thin 
smooth -leaved  kind  lik;  Clinton— the  northern  type. 

^  hat  is  the  best  aspect  for  a  grape-vineyard  ? 
0 


122  AGRICULTURE. 


PART  V. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


HORSES. 

ORIGIN  OF  HORSES — These  animals  are  not  natives  of 
America.  The  Indians  had  no  horses  before  the  white-man 
came — they  went  afoot  or  by  canoe.  The  wild  horses  of 
America  are  the  offspring  of  escaped  animals.  Geologists 
have  found  traces  of  small  animals,  supposed  to  be  the  ances- 
tors of  the  horse,  in  some  parts  of  America,  but  these  had  all 
disappeared  long  before  Europeans  arrived  four  centuries  ago. 
Horses,  as  we  know  them,  were  originally  used  in  warfare.  At 
present  we  have  many  kinds  of  horses,  but  all  have  doubtless 
come  from  the  same  stock  or  kind.  When  the  wild  animal 
was  first  tamed  or  domesticated,  we  do  not  know.  Climate 
and  food,  which  varied  in  different  countries,  and  the  uses  to 
which  horses  were  put,  gradually  produced  some  changes  in  form 
and  appearance.  Animals  that  showed  the  qualities  desired 
— such  as  size,  color,  form,  strength,  and  fleetness — were  care- 
fully treated,  and  thus  there  were  developed  in  different 
countries  horses  of  different  breeds,  some  desired  horses  for 
heavy  work,  animals  of  heavy  body,  stout  limbs,  and  strong 
muscles.  Others  desired  horses  for  speed,  animals  of  lighter 
frame,  smaller  bone,  and  sound  lungs. 

KINDS  OF  HORSES. — Two  classes  of  horses  have  resulted. 
We  shall  mention  here  only  four  breeds  of  each  class.  These 
have  become  fixed  or  definite  in  their  characteristics.  The 


HORSES.  123 

only  way  in  which  to  become  familiar  with  these  different 
breeds  is  by  observing  the  living  animals. 
Heavy  horses : 

1.  The  Clydesdale,  from  the  valley  of  the  Clyde  in  Scotland. 

2.  The  Shire,  of  the  East-central  shires  of  England. 

3.  The  Suffolk  Punch,  from  the  Eastern  counties  of  England. 

4.  The  Percheron  or  Norman,  of  Northern  France. 
Light  horses : 

1.  The  Hackney,  of  Yorkshire  and  Eastern  England. 

2.  The  Cleveland  Bay,  from  Yorkshire,  England. 

3.  The  Standard-bred,  of  the  United  States,  a  trotter. 

4.  The  Thoroughbred,  or  running  horse  of  England. 

THE  LEGS  AND  FEET. — These  are  of  most  importance  in 
a  horse  — "no  foot,  no  horse"  is  true  of  it  as  of  no  other 
animal.  The  feet  are  constantly  striking  upon  hard  earth  or 
stone.  Why  can  a  horse  bear  the  strain  of  so  much  hard 
pounding  upon  its  feet  and  legs  ?  The  parts  are  being  con- 
stantly reformed ;  life  is  repairing  them  all  the  time.  The  dif- 
ferent parts  are  put  together  with  what  we  may  call  cushions. 
Then  the  parts  of  the  hind  legs  are  not  joined  in  a  straight 
line,  and  the  front  legs  are  not  straight  as  the  feet  strike  the 
ground.  Step  from  a  chair,  keeping  the  leg  stepped  on 
perfectly  stiff.  Notice  how  the  jar  goes  straight  up  through 
the  knee  to  the  body.  When  we  jump  we  bend  the  knees. 

SHOEING  THE  HORSE.—  But  the  shape  of  the  legs  and  the 
bending  of  the  knees  do  not  save  the  hoof  from  all  wear  and 
tear.  If  the  shank  and  foot  of  a  dead  horse  can  be  got,  it 
will  be  an  interesting  study  to  take  it  apart  and  see  the 
arrangement  of  the  different  parts.  The  wall  of  the  hoof  is 
what  we  see  as  the  foot  stands  on  the  ground.  It  consists  of 
toe,  quarters,  and  heel.  The  wall  turns  in  at  the  heel,  forming 
the  bars.  Within  the  bars  is  the  frog.  Of  what  use  is  the 
frog  ?  Should  it  be  much  cut  down  in  shoeing  ?  The  varnish 


124 


AGRICULTURE. 


Fig.  68. 


THE  EXTERNAL  PARTS  OF  THE  HORSE. 


1.  Face. 

2.  Forehead. 

3.  Ears. 

4.  Muzzle. 

5.  Cheek  or  fowl. 

6.  Poll. 

7.  Throat. 

8.  Aarotid. 
Q.  Neck. 

10.  Crest. 

iz.  Jugular  Channel  or  Furrow. 

12.  Breast. 

13.  Withers. 

14.  Back. 

15.  Ribs.  * 

16.  Girth. 

17.  Loins. 

1 8.  Croup. 

19.  Dock. 

20.  Flank. 

21.  Belly. 

22.  Point  of  shoulder. 

23.  Elbow. 


24.  Forearm. 

25.  Knee. 

26.  Canon  or  shank. 

27.  Fetlock  joint. 

28.  Pastern. 

29.  Coronet. 

30.  Koot. 

31.  Ergot  and  fetlock. 

32.  Haunch. 
33-  Thigh. 

34.  Stifle. 

35.  Buttock. 

36.  Leg. 

37.  Hock. 

38.  Canon  or  shank. 

39.  Fetlock  joint. 

40.  Ergot  and  fetlock. 

41.  Pastern. 

42.  Coronet. 

43.  Foot. 

44.  Lower  thigh. 

45.  Point  of  hock. 


HORSES. 


on  the  hoof  is  formed  by  nature  to  keep  the  water  out  on 
damp  ground,  and  to  keep  the  hoof  from  drying  up  and 
cracking  on  dry  ground.  Should  the  blacksmith  rasp  off  this 
varnish  if  it  is  the  natural  protection  to  keep  the  hoof  sound  ? 
Great  care  must  be  taken  in  shoeing  young  horses  while  their 
hoofs  are  growing  larger.  On  sod,  turf,  or  dirt,  it  would  not 
be  necessary  for  a  horse  to  be  shod,  as  the  hoof  is  hard,  and 
formed  by  nature  for  running  over  the  natural  soil  and  grass. 
But  we  cause  the  horses  to  work  on  hard  stone  roads  and 
pavements,  and  therefore  we  fit  them  with  shoes  that  are 
harder  than  their  natural  hoofs.  The  hoof  is  of  the  same 
material  as  our  finger-nails  —  we  may 
call  the  hoof  a  large,  thick  toe-nail. 
The  foot  is  the  middle  toe,  the 
other  four  having  disappeared.  We 
can  cut  and  pare  the  hoof  and  drive 
nails  into  it,  therefore,  without  caus- 
ing any  pain.  If  we  cut  the  nail 
too  deeply,  we  come  to  a  very 
sensitive  part  of  the  finger.  So  with 
the  hoof;  under  it  and  within  it  is 
a  very  sensitive  part  of  the  foot.  It 
we  cut  into  it  or  drive  nails  into  it, 
we  cause  great  pain  to  the  horse,  and 
lameness  and  suffering  follow.  The 
horse'  therefore,  should  always  be 
shod  by  a  good  farrier  or  shoer. 
When  you  walk  on  your  toes,  or 
in  a  pair  of  boots  too  high  in  the  heel  or  too  tight,  you  soon 
tire  out.  If  good  shoes  of  proper  form  and  weight  are  so 
important  to  us  in  walking,  the  proper  fitting  of  shoes  of  the 
right  weight  and  size  is  quite  as  important  to  the  horse.  This 
is  another  reason  for  always  having  the  work  done  by  a  good 
workman. 


126  AGRICULTURE. 

FOOD  OF  HORSES. — The  horse  has  a  small  stomach,  and 
does  heavy  work,  therefore  we  must  remember  that  strong  food 
and  pure  water  should  be  given  in  moderate  quantities,  and  at 
frequent  intervals.  The  stomach  when  empty  weighs  from 
three  to  four  pounds,  and  it  will  hold  three  to  three  and  a  half 
gallons.  Horses  are  not  built  for  coarse,  bulky  fodder.  Nature 
and  experience  prove  that  such  food  as  good  hay  and  oats  are 
well  adapted  to  horses  that  have  to  work  hard  either  in 
driving  or  in  drawing.  Overfeeding  of  ourselves  makes  us 
heavy  and  lazy,  and  causes  indigestion.  We  should  be  careful 
to  give  the  horse  just  enough  to  eat  for  its  needs,  and  no  more. 

CARE  OF  HORSES. — Grooming  to  a  horse  is  the  same  as 
washing  to  ourselves — it  keeps  the  pores  of  the  skin  clean  and 
gives  a  good  appearance  to  the  horse.  Since  it  does  all  of  its 
work  on  its  feet,  the  health  of  the  feet  and  legs  is  of  the  greatest 
importance ;  therefore  great  care  is  taken  in  providing  a  proper 
floor  for  the  stable.  We  do  not  rest  or  sleep  well  in  a  foul 
atmosphere ;  the  horse  stable  should  be  kept  clean  and  neat. 
We  do  not  rest  well  on  too  hard  a  bed,  neither  does  the  horse. 
We  do  not  thrive  well  when  exposed  to  cold  winds  or  heavy 
rains,  neither  does  a  horse.  When  we  come  in  from  hard 
work  and  are  in  a  perspiration,  we  do  not  sit  or  stand  in  a 
draught ;  the  horse  is  just  as  likely  to  catch  cold. 

What  is  meant  by  the  height  of  a  horse  ?     In  what  terms  is  it  stated  ? 

When  a  horse  walks,  in  what  order  does  it  lift  its  feet  ?  Describe  the 
actions  of  the  feet  and  legs  in  trotting,  pacing,  cantering,  and  in  galloping. 

When  a  horse  rises  which  feet  are  raised  first  ?  Why  does  sitting  on  a 
horse's  head  prevent  its  rising  ?  Would  such  action  prevent  a  cow  ? 

Is  it  natural  for  a  horse  to  reach  up  and  pull  down  its  food,  such  as 
dusty  hay  ? 


CATTLE.  127 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 


CATTLE. 

BREEDS  OF  CATTLE. — Cattle  formerly  included  all  the  live 
stpck  of  the  farm ;  we  now  apply  the  term  only  to  bovine 
cattle  or  neat  cattle.  They  are  descended  from  wild  animals, 
some  of  which  are  still  found  in  the  wild  condition.  As 
horses  were  at  first  used  for  warfare,  cattle  were  largely  used 
for  work.  We  have  now  two  uses  for  cattle— producing  beef 
and  producing  milk.  There  are  very  many  different  breeds  in 
these  two  classes,  but  we  may  give  the  four  leading  breeds  of 
each  class  in  this  country  as  follows : 

Beef  breeds : 

1.  The    Shorthorn,   or    Durham,    originated    in    Durham 
County,  England,  over  100  years  ago  from  Teeswater  cattle. 
There  are  some  dairy  families  also  among  shorthorns. 

2.  The  Hereford,  originated  in  Herefordshire,  England,  over 
150  years  ago. 

3.  The  Galloway,  a  breed  of  black  polled  cattle  or  "doddies," 
from  Southern  Scotland. 

4.  The  Aberdeen-Angus,  from  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland. 
Dairy  breeds : 

1.  The  Jersey,  from  the  Island  of  Jeisey. 

2.  The  Guernsey,  from  the  Island  of  Guernsey. 

3.  The  Ayrshire,  from  Ayrshire,  Scotland. 

4.  The  Holstein,  or  Holstein-Friesian. 

In  figure  70  we  give  the  outlines  of  a  beef  animal.  We  shall 
now  refer  to  a  few  of  these  parts. 


128 


AGRICULTURE. 


1.  Month. 

2.  Nostrils. 

3.  Lips. 

4.  M  uzzle. 

5.  Kace. 

6  Ryes. 

7  Cheeks. 
8.  Jaws. 

g.   Forehead. 

10.  Poll. 

11.  Horns. 

12.  Ears. 

13.  Neck 
i«.  Throat. 
15    D-wlap. 
16.  Shoulders. 


Fig.  70.— 


•THE  EXTERNAL  PARTS  OF  A 

BEEF  ANIMAL. 

17.  Shoulder  Point. 

33.  Plates. 

irf.  Shoulder  Vein. 

34.  Rumps. 

19.  Klbows. 

35.  Hips. 

20.  Arm. 

36.  Thighs. 

21.  Knees. 

37.  Hocks. 

22.  Shanks. 

38.   Hind  Leg. 

23.  Hoofs. 

39.  Brisket. 

24.  Crops. 

40.  Bosom. 

25.   Fore  Flank. 

41.  Chest. 

26.   Kore  Ribs. 

42.  Loin 

27.   Mid  Ribs. 

43.   Hooks. 

28.   Hinder  Ribs. 

44.   Purse. 

29.  Barrel. 

45.  Twist. 

30.  Brlly. 

46.   Pin  Bonfs. 

31.  Spinf. 

47.  Tail  Head. 

32.  Flank. 

48.  Tail. 

CATTLE.  129 

HORNS  AND  HOOPS. — The  horns  of  cattle  were  intended 
by  nature  for  defence.  In  the  domestic  animal  they  are  not 
required,  hence  breeders  have  aimed  at  reducing  or  removing 
them.  The  "Longhorn"  breed  was  once  a  favorite;  it  has 
given  place  to  the  "  Shorthorn."  In  some  breeds  the  horns 
have  disappeared.  These  are  called  "polled"  cattle,  as  the 
Polled-Angus  and  the  Red  Polls.  The  bone  of  an  animal  is 
largely  made  up  of  mineral  matter  (phosphate  of  lime),  with 
some  oily  and  gluey  substances.  Horns  and  hoofs  are  quite 
different  from  and  independent  of  the  bones.  When  burned, 
a  piece  of  horn  or  of  hoof  will  give  off  a  very  disagreeable 
odor.  So  will  hair.  The  horns,  hoofs,  and  hair  are  all  nitro- 
genous in  their  nature.  Since  the  horn  is  closely  connected 
with  a  very  sensitive  part  of  the  animal's  head,  when  dehorning 
is  practised,  the  horn  should  be  cut  off  quickly  and  neatly. 
The  horse's  hoof  is  in  one  piece ;  the  feet  of  cattle  are  cloven. 
Is  there  any  advantage  to  the  cattle  in  this  ?  Which  kind  of 
foot  is  better  adapted  to  climbing,  and  which  to  level  travel  ? 
Do  all  cloven-footed  animals  chew  the  cud  ? 

THE  MOUTH. — When  full-grown,  we  have  three  kinds  of 
teeth.  The  front  teeth  are  for  biting,  and  are  called  the 
incisors ;  the  back  teeth  are  broad  and  double-rooted,  formed 
for  grinding,  known  as  the  molars;  between  these  are  longer 
teeth  called  the  canines.  If  you  examine  the  teeth  of  an  ox, 
you  find  no  upper  incisors  and  no  canines.  There  are  eight 
lower  incisors,  and  six  upper  and  six  lower  molars  on  each  side, 
making  thirty-two  in  all,  as  follows  : 

Incisors  -      Canines  -  Molars  - 

8  o-o  6-6 

This  arrangement  applies  to  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  deer, 
though  sometimes  canines  occur.  How  would  you  represent,  as 
above,  the  teeth  of  a  boy  and  of  a  full-grown  man  ?  How  those  of 
a  horse  ?  The  molars  of  a  horse  are  larger  and  broader  than 
those  of  a  cow.  A  horse  bites  the  grass  with  the  incisors, 


130 


AGRICULTURE. 


and  by  a  nod  of  the  head  cuts  it  away.  A  cow  wraps  her  tongue 
around  the  long,  coarse  grass,  pulls  it  into  her  mouth,  closes 
the  incisors  and  upper  gum  upon  it,  and  by  a  movement  of  the 
head  tears  it  away.  The  horse  is  therefore  able  to  take  the 
fine  grass,  and  to  crop  the  pasture  more  closely  than  the  cow. 

THE  STOMACH. — Sheep  and  cattle  are  ruminants — they  chew 
the  cud.  See  Fig.  71.  a  represents  the  gullet  connecting  the 
stomach  and  mouth  through  which  the  food  passes  into  the 
stomach,  and  /  the  beginning  of  the  intestine  through  which 

the  food  passes  out  of  the 
stomach.  There  are  four  sacs  all 
joined ;  b  is  the  first  or  largest 
stomach  (the  rumen,  or  paunch); 
c  is  the  second  (reticulum) ; 
d  the  third  (omasum) ;  e  the 
fourth  (abomasum).  When  a 
cow  takes  in  coarse  food,  it  passes 
into  the  first  or  largest  stomach 
until  the  cow  is  done  eating. 
Then  the  cow  stops  taking  in 
food  and  begins  to  digest  it. 
Fig.  71.— The  four  stomachs  of  a  cow.  After  soaking  or  steeping  some 
time  in  the  large  stomach,  it  gradually  comes  back  through  the 
gullet  to  the  mouth,  to  be  chewed  over  and  over  until  it  becomes 
more  liquid-like.  Then  it  flows  back  and  passes  right  on  into 
the  smaller  stomachs,  and  thence  into  the  intestines.  If  liquid 
food  is  taken,  as  in  the  case  of  calves,  the  food  passes  right  on 
into  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs.  The  four  stomachs  of  the 
cow  therefore  enable  her  to  take  in  a  large  quantity  of  food, 
and  to  digest  very  coarse  fodder.  The  chewing  of  the  cud 
enables  her  to  do  without  the  complete  set  of  teeth  so  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  horses.  The  single  stomach  of  a  horse 
holds  about  3  gallons,  the  four  stomachs  of  a  cow  from  60  to 
70  gallons. 


CATTLE. 


DAIRY  CATTLE. — Figure  72  shows  the  general  form  of  a 
good  dairy  cow,  an  animal  in  which  the  end  desired  is  to  give 
as  large  an  amount  as  possible  of  rich  milk  at  the  least  cost 
for  food.  Contrast  the  outlines  of  this  animal  with  the  one 
shown  in  figure  70.  As  a  rule,  the  large  dairy  herds  are  com- 


Fig.  72. — Parts  of  a  model  dairy  cow. 

posed  of  grade  cows ;  these  are  the  offspring  of  pure-bred  sires 
and  common  dams.  There  is  an  old  saying,  "  The  sire  is  half 
the  herd."  This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  table  of  the 
offspring  of  a  pure-bred  sire  and  of  a  common  (scrub)  sire  : 


Pure-bred  sire. 
Common  cows  or  dams. 

1.  Grades,  one-half  pure. 

2.  Three-quarters  pure. 

3.  Seven-eighths  pure. 


Common  (scrub)  sire. 
Pure-bred  cows  or  dams. 

1.  Grades,  one-half  pure. 

2.  One-quarter  pure. 

3.  One-eighth  pure  (scrub). 


This  statement  means  that  in  the  first  case  we  start  with  a 
herd  of  common  cows  and  a  pure-bred  sire.  The  first  genera- 
tion of  calves  will  all  be  grades,  one-half  pure-bred.  The 
calves  of  these  and  the  pure-bred  sire  will  all  be  three-quarters 
pure-bred,  and  their  calves  will  be  seven-eighths  pure-bred. 


132 


AGRICULTURE. 


If,  however,  we  were  to  start  a  herd  with  pure-bred  cows  and 
a  common  sire,  the  third  race  or  generation  would  be  only  one- 
eighth  pure-bred.  The  continued  use  of  a  pure-bred  sire  will 
in  a  few  years  bring  the  herd  to  the  level  of  the  sire. 

BEEF.  —  As  we  have  got  most  of  our  farm  animals  from 
the  British  Isles,  the  names  applied  to  them  have  come 
from  the  same  source.  The  living  animals  we  call  oxen,  cows, 
calves,  sheep,  swine,  but  the  meat  from  these  same  animals  we 
call  beef,  veal,  mutton,  pork.  Why  these 
two  sets  of  names  ?  In  early  times  the 
living  animals  were  tended  by  the  Saxon 
hind,  and  the  meat  was  eaten  by  the 
Norman  lord  or  baron.  Thus  the  names 
for  the  living  animals  are  Saxon  names, 
and  the  names  for  the  meats  are  Norman. 
But  what  is  the  meat  ?  It  is  made  up 
of  fat  and  lean  meat.  The  lean  meat  is 
of  the  same  composition  as  muscle  ;  in 
fact,  it  is  fine,  tender,  muscle  fibre.  Now 
we  can  easily  understand  why  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  a  quarter  of  beef  are  not 
equally  valuable.  In  some  parts  the  fibre 


Fig.  73—A  Side  of  Beef, 
.  Leg.  2.  Round.  3.  Mouse  is  coarser,  more  like  muscle  as  we  gener- 
sus?rcioin  46VRuymppieC7'  ally  know  it.     We  can  understand  why 
™Sf  ;e8ndeSh°USe 

SuriS?'  J2.10MidFdTeerib:  the  hind  quarter,  for  instance,  is  tougher 
rib  fcbi05ulshrin   'to.  'clod!  towards   the   smaller   or   lower 
i7.  Neck,  or  stick  ing-piece.  shank. 


the  neck  is  tough,  and  why  the  meat  of 


or  ower  part  or 
In  finding  the  tenderest  cut  of  the 
carcass,  we  look  for  that  place  where  there  is  plenty  of  flesh 
and  little  work  to  be  done,  that  is,  where  the  muscles  are  least 
developed  by  hard  work  ;  this,  by  reference  to  Fig.  73,  we 
locate  between  parts  5  and  8. 


SHEEP.  133 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 


SHEEP. 

"The  foot  of  the  Sheep  bringeth  wealth." 

NATURE  OF  SHEEP.— Our  domestic  sheep  are  so  harmless 
that  we  are  not  at  first  thought  likely  to  see  in  them  the 
descendants  of  wild  animals.  Their  shyness,  their  flocking  to- 
gether and  following  a  leader,  and  their  natural  inclination  to 
climb  hills  and  even  knolls,  recall  ,the  characteristics  of  their 
ancestors,  the  wild  sheep  of  the  mountains. 
They  are  more  closely  allied  to  our  cattle 
than  to  other  farm  stock.  Like  the  cattle 
they  are  cloven-footed,  have  four  stomachs, 
and  chew  the  cud.  Cattle  are  more  in- 
clined to  the  wet  bottomland  and  the 
water  courses,  sheep  to  the  dry  uplands. 

t-^    ...  .      ,       •  ,    ,      •  ...         FIR.  74.— What  breed  is  it? 

Cattle  are  coated  with  hair  and  sheep  with 
wool.     The  sheep  is  one  of  man's  earliest  farm  chattels,  provid- 
ing him  with  both  meat  and  clothing,  and  is  of  very  great 
usefulness  in  helping  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

WOOL. — Hair  and  wool  contain  nitrogen,  as  you  may  prove 
by  burning — ammonia  being  given  off.  Burn  a  piece  of  cotton 
thread  and  notice  the  result.  The  wool  of  the  sheep  is  for  its 
protection,  and  therefore  the  length  and  thickness  of  the  wool 
vary  with  the  climate  of  the  countries  in  which  the  sheep  are 
living.  The  same  is  true  of  the  hair  of  cattle,  as  we  see  in  the 
case  of  the  shaggy  covering  of  the  Highland  breed  of  cattle. 
Horses  exposed  to  the  winter  weather  grow  a  coarse  coat. 
Food  also  affects  the  quality  of  the  wool.  If  the  food  is  not 
uniform  the  wool  will  become  irregular  and  be  of  poor  quality 


134  AGRICULTURE. 

No  other  farm  animal  is  so  much  affected  by  its  surroundings 
as  the  sheep.  As  a  consequence  we  find  so  many  different 
varieties,  and  for  this  reason  we  must  be  careful  to  choose  the 
variety  that  is  most  likely  to  do  well  in  the  conditions  of  the 
farm  on  which  they  are  desired  to  be  grown — such  as  situation, 
climate,  etc.  Why  is  wool  warm  ?  Because  it  is  fine  and 
open  and  holds  so  much  air  in  its  fibres,  and  this  air  prevents 
the  heat  of  the  body  from  going  off;  as  we  say  it  is  a  poor 
conductor  of  heat.  It  is  not  because  it  keeps  out  cold,  but 
because  it  keeps  in  the  heat  of  the  body.  If  you  wrap  a 
piece  of  ice  in  a  loose  thick  woollen  cloth  it  will  prevent  the 
ice  from  melting  rapidly.  Why  ?  Because  the  heat  outside 
does  not  pass  through  or  get  in.  Double  windows  in  a  house 
are  a  protection,  not  because  of  the  glass  in  the  panes,  but 
because  of  the  air  between  the  two  windows.  So  the  hollow 
space  in  the  wall  of  a  silo  keeps  in  the  heat  of  the  ensilage, 
and  thus  prevents  it  from  freezing.  A  covering  of  loose  snow 
protects  the  wheat  for  the  same  reason.  Now  that  we  under- 
stand that  wool  keeps  the  sheep  warm  while  it  is  on  the  sheep's 
back,  we  ask  why  wool  can  be  made  into  yarn  and  cloth.  If 
you  look  at  a  fibre  of  wool  under  a  magnifying  glass  you  will 
see  that  it  is  made  up  of  sections,  that  there  are  little  joints  or 
scales  on  the  wool  and  when  several  fibres  are  twisted  together 
these  little  scales  catch  into  one  another  and  the  fibres  thus 
hold  together  tightly — the  wool,  as  we  say,  "felts"  well.  There 
comes  from  the  skin  of  the  sheep  a  soapy  substance  called  the 
"yolk,"  which  covers  the  inner  wool  and  helps  to  shed  the 
rain.  It  prevents  the  wool  from  felting  on  the  sheep's  body. 
When  the  fleece  is  washed  this  is  washed  out  and  the  fleece 
becomes  much  lighter.  Sheep  are  by  nature  fitted  to  stand 
cold,  but  not  wet  weather — they  should  always  have  dry  quarters. 
BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. — Sheep  of  various  breeds  are  found  in 
Britain,  from  the  marsh  lands  of  Kent  to  the  mountains  of 
Wales  and  Scotland.  They  have  adapted  themselves  in  time 


SHEEP.  135 

to  a  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate,  and  in  selecting  sheep  for 
a  farm  it  is  well  to  get  the  breed  suited  to  the  situation.  The 
following  is  a  table  of  the  principal  British  breeds  : 

Mountain  Breeds.  Upland  or  Hill  Breeds. 

Welsh,  Dorset, 

Cheviot,  Southdown, 

Highland.  Suffolk, 

Lowland  Breeds.  Hampshire, 

Cotswold,  Shropshire, 

Leicester,  Oxford. 

Lincoln, 
Romney  Marsh. 

The  lowland  breeds  are  long-wooled  and  the  upland  breeds 
short-wooled.  The  lowland  breeds  are  larger  than  the  uplands. 
The  upland  breeds  are  the  best  mutton  breeds.  Short  wool 
from  3  to  4  inches  long  is  sometimes  called  carding  wool,  and 
longer  wool,  from  7  to  8  inches  long,  combing  wool. 

The  principal  breeds  of 'this  country  may  be  arranged  as 
follows,  according  to  the  texture  of  their  wool : 
Fine-w ooled : — Merino  ; 

Medium-wooled : — Southdown,  Shropshire,  Hampshire,  Ox- 
ford Down,  Cheviot,  Horned  Dorset ; 

Coarse-ivooled : — Leicester,  Lincoln,  Cotswold. 

Is  the  wool  on  all  parts  of  a  sheep's  body  of  the  same  texture  ? 

Are  all  long  wools  coarse,  and  all  short  wools  fine  ? 

From  what  parts  of  Europe  have  the  above  breeds  of  sheep  come  ? 

At  what  time  of  the  year  does  shearing  take  place  ? 

Are  goats  covered  with  wool  or  with  hair  ? 

What  kinds  of  cloths  are  made  from  wool  ? 

Why  is  flannel  cloth  warmer  than  cotton  ? 

What  is  shoddy  ? 


1 36  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 


SWINE. 

NATURE  OF  SWINE. — The  wild  hog  is  still  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  Even  in  Europe  there  are  districts  where 
wild  boars  are  hunted.  From  the  many  kinds  of  wild  hogs  our 
domestic  breeds  have  been  derived.  In  the  wild  condition 
the  animal  is  very  active,  and  well  able  to  protect  itself  by  its 
tusks  and  teeth.  The  improving  of  the  \vild  animal  has 
changed  the  form,  and  made  an  animal  that  is  quite  compact 
and  fleshy,  and  less  active.  There  is  less  bone  in  the  hog  than 
in  sheep  or  cattle,  as  one  may  see  from  the  following  statement, 
which  gives  the  number  of  pounds  of  water,  fleshy  substance, 
fat,  and  ash  or  bony  matter  in  every  100  pounds  of  a  fat  ox,  a 

fat  sheep,  and  a  fat  pig : 

Fat  Ox.        Fat  Sheep.        Fat  Pig. 
Ib.  Ib.  Ib. 

Water 48  46  43 

Fleshy  matter 15  13  n 

Fat 32  38  44 

Ash  (bony  part) 5  3  2 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  fat  pig  has  more  fat  and  less  bone 
in  proportion  to  its  weight  than  a  fat  ox  or  a  fat  sheep. 

GROWTH. — Although  the  hog  has  cloven  hoofs,  it  does  not 
ruminate  or  chew  its  cud  as  do  the  cow  and  the  sheep. 
Therefore,  we  may  conclude  at  once  that  it  does  not  digest  its 
food  in  the  same  way  as  they  do.  It  has  only  one  stomach. 
And  yet  we  find  that  the  hog  grows  in  weight  more  rapidly. 
How  do  we  explain  this  ?  There  are  three  things  to  be  con- 
sidered :  First,  the  kind  of  food  which  the  animal  eats ; 
second,  the  means  which  the  animal  has  of  digesting  its  food ; 
and,  third,  what  the  food,  after  being  digested,  is  used  for. 


SWINE.  137 

First,  as  to  the  food  eaten.  Pigs  are  able  to  eat  a  greater 
variety  of  foods  than  cattle  or  sheep.  The  wild  hog  lives  on 
grass,  roots,  nuts,  etc.  Our  domestic  hogs  are  generally  fed  the 
richest  kinds  of  food — peas,  corn,  wheat,  skim  milk,  flesh  meal, 
etc.  Pigs  will  greedily  devour  the  richest  rations  day  after 
day  of  which  most  other  animals  would  soon  become  tired. 

Second,  as  to  the  power  of  digesting  food.  As  we  have 
stated  before,  the  animal  digests  and  takes  up  its  food  through 
the  stomach  and  intestines.  The  pig  has  a  small  stomach,  but 
a  very  long  intestine.  The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of 
the  weight  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  body,  and  also  the  weight  of  the  four  quarters : 

Cattle.  Sheep.  Swine. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Stomach 4^  2^  i£ 

Intestines...., 2  2^  4 

Four  quarters 47^  45  73 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  cattle  the  stomach  is  over  twice 
the  intestines  in  weight,  in  sheep  about  equal,  whereas  in 
swine  the  intestines  are  over  three  times  the  weight  of  the 
stomach.  We  conclude  that  swine  have  small  stomachs,  and 
can  take  only  a  small  amount  of  food  at  a  time,  but,  because 
of  their  very  long  intestines,  they  are  able  to  digest  the  food 
much  more  thoroughly — that  is,  they  feed  frequently  and 
digest  their  food  thoroughly. 

Third,  as  to  the  use  made  of  the  food  digested.  They  are 
not  so  active  as  sheep  or  cattle ;  they  are  generally  more  shut 
in,  and  therefore  they  do  not  use  up  as  much  of  their  food 
through  exercise.  English  experiments  prove  that,  out  of 
every  100  pounds  of  digested  food,  cattle  use  23  pounds, 
sheep  26,  and  swine  43,  for  making  increase  in  their  bodies. 

When,  further,  we  remember  that  swine  increase  in  number 
so  much  more  rapidly  than  cattle  or  sheep,  we  can  understand 
why  the  keeping  of  swine  is  so  profitable  a  part  of  farm  work. 


138 


AGRICULTURE. 


BREEDS  OF  SWINE. — Every  country  has  its  own  peculiar 
breeds  of  swine.  In  England  there  are,  besides  many  others, 
the  following :  The  Large  White,  the  Small  White,  and  the 
Middle  breeds  (so  named  according  to  their  size  and  color) ; 
also  the  Black  Suffolk  or  Essex,  the  Berkshires,  the  Dorsets, 
and  the  Tamworths.  In  America  there  have  been  developed 
breeds  known  as  the  Chester  White  (Pennsylvania),  the  Poland 
China  (Ohio),  and  the  Duroc  or  Jersey  Red  (New  Jersey).  The 
Yorkshires  and  Improved  Yorkshires  of  America  are  derived 
from  the  Large  White  swine  of  England. 

FEEDING  OF  SWINE. — In  producing  pork  and  bacon,  three 

things  are  to  be  noted : 
Selection  of  the  right  kind 
of  swine ;  feeding  the  best 
kind  of  food ;  housing  the 
animals  in  suitable  quarters. 
In  producing  swine  for 
bacon  and  hams  that  are 
required  for  city  consump- 
tion, hogs  of  medium  size, 
that  produce  lean  meat  and 
fat  in  proper  proportion,  are 
the  best.  Foods  such  as 
the  bye-products  of  milk, 
peas,  wheat,  and  barley,  will 
produce  more  lean  meat  and 
less  fat  than  corn.  The  hog 
is  sometimes  considered  a 
dirty  animal.  For  this  the 
owner  is  as  much  respon- 
sible as  the  animal.  Clean 
housing  and  good  care  will  pay  with  swine  as  much  as  with 
other  animals. 


Fig.  75. — Two  sides  of  pork,  showing  method 
of  cutting  up. 

1  Streaky  quarter.  9  Lnin. 

2  Rib  quartet.  10  Fillet. 

3  Middle  quarter.  n  Shou'der. 

4  Hams          "  12  Prime  streaky. 

5  End  of  neck.  13  Thin 

6  Middle  of  neck.  14  Flank. 

7  Thick  back  and  sides.  15  Middle  of  gammon. 

8  Prime  back  and  ribs.    16  Knuckle  of  gammon. 

17  Fore  end. 


POULTRY.  139 


CHAPTER  XXX. 


POULTRY. 

ORIGIN. — In  addition  to  the  common  poultry  of  the  farm, 
we  have  turkeys,  geese,  ducks  ;  also  guinea-fowls,  pea-fowls  and 
pheasants.  These  are  all  closely  related  to  various  kinds  of 
wild  fowls  and  some  of  them  are  very  similar  to  these  wild 
fowls  in  appearance.  In  our  common  fowls  there  are  very 
many  varieties  of  breeds,  from  the  small  bantams  to  the  large 
brahmas,  differing  in  size,  in  shape,  and  in  the  color  and  form 
of  feather  or  plumage.  It  is  believed  that  all  have  been  derived 
from  one  original  source,  a  wild  breed  of  fowl.  Many  consider 
that  the  common  Jungle  Fowl  of  India  is  the  source  from 
which  have  come  all  the  varieties.  This  fowl  is  somewhat  like 
the  Black-breasted  Red  Game,  and  is  still  found  in  India. 
Others  think  a  wild  fowl  now  no  longer  found  is  the  ancestor. 
How  have  our  breeds  been  formed  ?  Just  as  new  breeds  are 
now  being  formed.  Suppose  we  take  a  flock  of  fowls  and  observe 
them  from  year  to  year,  as  they  increase  in  number.  We  shall 
get  some  chickens  that,  as  they  grow,  show  differences  in  form, 
size  and  color.  Even  if  they  are  all  one  variety,  here  and  there 
one  will  appear  having  some  slight  difference  from  the  others. 
We  select  two  or  three  that  have  a  new  coloring  in  their 
feathers  that  we  desire  to  continue.  Those  selected  are  differ- 
ent from  the  others,  but  similar  to  one  another.  We  place 
them  by  themselves  and  allow  them  to  breed.  The  chickens 
that  we  raise  from  them  will  probably  have  the  same  peculiar 
kind  of  feathers.  We  select  those  that  are  most  alike  and 
breed  from  them.  After  a  few  years  we  may  be  able  to  raise 
a  number  of  fowls  that  are  quite  similar  in  appearance  to  one 


140 


AGRICULTURE. 


another,  out  quite  different  from  the  original  flock,  and  whose 
chickens  will  resemble  the  parent  fowls.  Thus  a  new  variety 
or  breed  will  be  obtained.  Or  we  may  take  birds  from  two 
different  kinds  of  fowls  and  cross  them.  By  carefully  selecting 
only  those  that  have  the  peculiarities  that  we  desire  to  preserve, 
we  shall  soon  get  a  new  breed  which  may  be  improved  in  size 
and  shape  by  selecting  only  the  best,  male  and  female,  to  breed 
from.  Thus  the  Plymouth  Rocks  have  been  obtained  by 
crossing  American  Dominiques  with  Cochins.  It  is  very 
important  to  note  that  the  fowls  are  so  readily  changed  in  form 


gg^I  22 


=S^^.V    22 


Fig    76. — Parts  of  a  Fowl. 

1  Comb.  12  Main  tail  feathers. 

2  Face.  13  Wing-bow. 

3  Wattle.  14  Win?  coverts  forming  the  "bar. 

4  Earlobe.  15  Secondaries. 

5  Hackle.  16  Primaries,  or  flight  feathers. 

6  Breast.  ^7  Point  of  breast  bone. 

7  Back.  18  Thighs. 

8  Saddle.  19  Hocks. 

9  Saddle  feathers.  20  Legs  or  shanks. 

10  Sickles.  21  Spur. 

11  Tail  coverts.  22  Toes  or  claws. 


POULTRY.  141 

and  feathers.  Breeds  that  are  so  readily  changed  will  soon  run 
out  unless  care  is  constantly  taken  to  improve  them,  by  weed- 
ing out  the  poorest  and  keeping  the  best  with  care. 

THE  PARTS  OF  A  FOWL. — Since  all  have  the  same  origin 
we  may  expect  that  they  will  all  have  some  characteristics  in 
common.  The  general  form  is  the  same.  Fig.  76  gives  us 
the  names  of  the  various  parts. 

VARIETIES. — In  some  varieties,  such  as  the  Cochins,  the 
Langshans,  and  the  Brahmas,  the  feathers  extend  down  the 
outside  of  the  legs  or  shanks.  From  this  fact  we  sometimes 
have  the  fowls  divided  into  the  two  classes,  the  smooth-legged 
and  the  feather-legged.  The  different  breeds  are  further  sub- 
divided according  to  the  color  of  their  plumage  ;  thus  we  have 
Dark  Brahmas  and  Light  Brahmas  ;  also  Black,  Buff,  White 
and  Partridge  Cochins.  Another  mode  of  classing  fowls  is 
into  laying  varieties  and  sitting  varieties.  Sometimes  they  are 
classed  according  to  the  country  or  region  from  which  they 
have  been  derived,  as  Asiatics,  Mediterraneans,  Americans. 

CHARACTERISTICS. — Common  fowls  have  four  toes,  three  in 
front  and  one  to  the  rear.  They  are  not  web-footed,  there- 
fore we  conclude  they  are  fitted  by  nature  for  hard  dry  soil. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  web  foot  in  ducks  and  geese  ?  The 
toes  have  sharp  strong  nails  for  scratching.  From  this  we 
notice  that  they  should  be  supplied  with  a  dry  run  where  they 
can  scratch  and  exercise  themselves  and  their  young  broods. 
Fowls  take  their  young  to  seek  for  food  and  birds  bring  food 
to  their  young  in  the  nest.  They  need  plenty  of  sunlight,  as  we 
may  conclude  from  watching  chickens  basking  in  the  sunshine. 
How  do  fowls  drink  water?  Have  they  teeth?  What  is  the 
use  of  the  crop  in  fowls  ? 

As  to  food  we  have  only  to  remember  what  the  fowls 
require  food  for  to  conclude  that  they  need  plenty  of  rich  food. 
They  are  constantly  growing  feathers  which  are  rich  in  nitro- 
gen, their  flesh  is  principally  lean  meat,  their  eggs  are  what  we 


142  AGRICULTURE. 

call  "strong  meat."  For  their  good  health  they  need  also 
some  green  food.  The  shells  of  their  eggs  are  largely  com- 
posed of  lime,  therefore  we  must  give  them  mineral  matter, 
especially  when  more  or  less  shut  in  and  when  the  ground  is 
covered  with  snow.  They  are  fitted  by  nature  for  picking  out 
the  richest  food,  such  as  insects  and  small  seeds. 

The  health  of  the  fowls  depends  greatly  upon  having  a 
variety  of  clean  food  to  eat,  clean  water  to  drink,  clean  places 
in  which  to  roost  and  nest.  The  fowls  keep  their  coats  and 
skins  clean  of  insects  by  dusting,  as  do  many  other  animals. 

Because  of  the  rich  food,  such  as  grains  and  insects, 
which  fowls  feed  upon,  we  may  expect  the  droppings  to  be 
rich  in  fertilizing  material.  The  richest  manure  made  upon 
the  farm  is  that  from  fowls.  It  should  be  carefully  saved  and 
used  where  it  will  do  most  good.  The  use  of  gypsum  or  sifted 
coal  ashes  about  the  hennery,  especially  under  the  perches, 
(not  common  lime  or  wood  ashes)  will  keep  the  buildings 
clean  and  sweet.  In  washing  the  buildings  with  lime  or  other 
disinfectant,  the  orchard  spray  pump  may  be  used. 

EGGS. — A  good  flock  of  laying  hens  should  lay  on  the 
average  ten  dozen  eggs  each.  The  egg  consists  of  the  shell, 
which  is  porous,  the  lining  or  membrane,  the  "  white "  or 
albumen,  and  the  yolk. 

Can  you  give  any  reason  for  some  birds'  eggs  being  nearly  spherical  in 
shape,  and  others  oval  like  hens'  eggs  ? 

In  which  end  is  the  air  chamber  of  an  eg%  ? 

Why  is  a  stale  egg  lighter  than  a  fresh  egg  ? 

What  is  meant  by  "  candling  "  eggs  ? 

Why  is  the  shell  porous  ? 

Why  does  the  setting  hen  turn  the  eggs  under  her  ? 

What  is  an  incubator  ? 

How  long  does  it  take  to  hatch  a  chick  from  an  egg  ? 

Why  does  a  "  moulting  "  hen  not  lay  eggs  ? 

What  are  the  principal  methods  of  preserving  eggs  ? 

Which  is  the  better  test  of  a  laying  hen  ?  The  number  of  eggs  laid,  or 
the  total  weight  of  eggs  laid  ? 


MILK.  143 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


MILK. 

MILK. — Nature  provides  as  a  food  for  the  young  calf  the 
milk  of  the  mother  cow.  For  a  short  time  after  the  birth  of 
the  calf  this  product  is  called  "colostrum."  In  a  few  days, 
however,  the  cow  gives  in  her  udder  milk  such  as  we  use. 
The  giving  of  milk  is  to  a  great  extent  an  acquired  habit.  In 
the  case  of  breeds  raised  for  beef  only,  as  in  the  case  of 
Herefords,  the  quantity  of  milk  given  is  not  large.  Where, 
however,  the  aim  has  been  to  produce  dairy  cows  the  continued 
practice  of  milking  has  gradually  increased  the  flow  of  milk. 
The  knowledge  of  this  is  important.  For  instance,  if  we  begin 
by  milking  a  cow,  say  for  only  six  months,  and  then  allow  her 
to  go  dry,  she  will  of  herself  be  inclined  to  go  dry  thereafter 
at  about  the  end  of  six  months.  If  we  do  not  thoroughly  milk 
out  a  cow  at  first,  she  will  gradually  drop  off  in  her  flow.  It  is 
of  importance,  then,  to  thoroughly  milk  out  the  cows,  especially 
as  the  strippings  are  the  richest  portion  of  the  milk.  Anything 
that  irritates  or  disturbs  a  cow  will  cause  her  to  "  hold  up  " 
and  to  produce  a  poorer  milk.  The  cow  as  a  milk-producing 
animal,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  very  much  what  her  owner 
makes  her,  and  she  will  give  many  of  her  qualities  to  her  calf. 

If  we  place  some  milk  in  a  tall,  narrow  glass,  and  allow  it  to 
stand  for  a  while,  there  will  gradually  rise  to  the  top  a  thick 
substance,  sometimes  yellowish  in  color,  which  we  call  cream 
When  this  cream  is  churned,  we  get  from  it  butter,  which  is 
an  oily  substance.  Carefully  remove  the  cream,  and  allow  the 
other  portion  of  the  milk,  the  skim-milk,  to  stand  for  some 
time  until  it  thoroughly  sours ;  we  shall  find  that  a  curdy 


144  AGRICULTURE. 

substance  separates  and  leaves  a  bluish  water  behind.  The 
cream  or  butter,  then,  is  an  oil  or  fat  which  is  mixed  through 
the  milk,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  comes  to  the  top  we  conclude 
that  it  is  lighter  than  the  skim-milk.  It  is  not  dissolved  in  the 
water  of  the  milk  as  sugar  is  dissolved  in  water,  but  is  simply 
mixed  with  it  or  distributed  through  it  in  very  fine  particles ; 
in  fact,  we  can  put  it  back  into  the  skim-milk  if  we  pour  the 
two  together  from  one  vessel  into  another  before  the  milk 

sours.  It  is  in  the  form  of 
what  is  called  an  "emulsion." 
When  fresh  milk  is  run  through 
a  cream  separator,  the  heavy 
skim-milk  is  thrown  away  from 
the  lighter  fat  or  cream.  This 
could  not  be  done  if  the  fat  were 
dissolved  in  it.  Milk,  then, 
contains  water  and  fat  or  oil — 
butter-fat,  as  it  is  called.  Now 

Fig.  77.— Milk,  showing  the  fat  globules     take  SOme  skim-milk  and  Slight- 
floating  in  it.  .  •  A      i  •  r 

ly  warm  it.     A  thin  scum  forms 

upon  it.  This  scum  is  composed  principally  of  albumen,  a 
nitrogen  compound  similar  to  the  white  of  egg,  which  becomes 
white  and  nsoluble  by  heating  or  cooking.  It  forms  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  milk.  If,  however,  we  put  a  few  drops  of 
rennet  or  vinegar  into  the  skim-milk,  a  curdling  at  once  takes 
place,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  material  is  thrown  out  of 
solution  and  floats  about  as  a  curdy  or  cheesy  mass ;  this 
is  the  casein  of  the  milk,  also  a  nitrogen  compound.  Then 
we  have  at  least  two  nitrogen  compounds  in  milk — the 
albumen,  which  is  curdled  by  heat,  and  the  casein,  which  is 
curdled  by  acids.  The  latter  is  in  much  larger  quantity  than 
the  former,  and  both  are  in  solution  in  the  water  of  the  milk. 
We  can  readily  prove  that  these  two  contain  nitrogen,  and 
differ  therein  from  the  fat.  Take  some  pure  butter  and  burn 


MILK.  145 

it  on  the  end  of  an  old  knife,  then  burn  some  casein  curd  or 
cheese,  and  notice  the  strong  ammonia  smell  from  the  latter. 
If,  now,  we  pour  off  the  clean  water  from  the  curd,  and  carefully 
evaporate  the  water  in  a  saucer  placed  over  the  steam  of  a 
kettle  or  in  a  slow  oven,  we  shall  get  a  white  substance  that 
tastes  sweet  but  gritty  ;  it  is  the  sugar  of  the  milk,  called  milk- 
sugar  or  lactose.  Finally,  if  we  carefully  dry  out  a  little  dish 
of  milk  and  burn  it  thoroughly,  we  shall  have  left  a  small 
quantity  of  ash  or  mineral  matter.  Milk,  therefore,  consists  ot 
water,  having  particles  of  butter-fat  floating  in  it  undissolved, 
and  having  in  solution  casein  and  albumen,  milk-sugar,  and 
ash.  The  composition  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

Water,  from  80  to  90 averaging  87.0  per  cent. 

Fat,  from  2  to  10 ........    .        "  4.0       " 

Casein  or  cheesy  substance ..        "  3.0       " 

Albumen "  0.5       *' 

Sugar   or  lactose "  4.8       " 

Ash  or  mineral  matter "  0.7       " 

A  pitcher  of  warm  water  gives  off  vapor  into  the  air,  but  a 
pitcher  of  ice  water  will  have  vapor  settle  up  its  sides  from  the 
air.  So  it  is  with  milk.  Milk  is  warm  when  first  milked  and 
we  can  smell  the  odor,  the  cow  odor,  as  it  passes  off  into  the 
air ;  but  it  soon  begins  to  cool  down  and  vapors  of  the  air 
will  settle  upon  its  surface  as  upon  the  cold  pitcher.  If,  there- 
fore, we  leave  a  pail  of  milk  standing  in  the  stable,  or  near  any 
food  that  has  a  bad  smell,  it  will  take  up  foul  air  that  can  after- 
wards be  tasted  in  the  milk,  the  butter  and  the  cheese.  As 
soon  as  milking  is  done  the  milk  should  at  once  be  taken  to 
a  clean  milk-house  or  cellar.  But  bad  odors  and  tastes  can  be 
given  from  the  food.  Thus  turnips,  bad  ensilage,  cabbage, 
rape  and  weeds  of  many  kinds  will  affect  the  milk.  All  such 
should  be  kept  from  the  animal.  Here  we  see  a  strong  argu- 
ment for  keeping  pastures  clean.  Every  trace  of  musty  food 
such  as  mouldy  ensilage  or  rotting  roots  should  be  kept  from 


146 


AGRICULTURE. 


the  cows.  The  mangers  should  be  kept  sweet.  No  more  food 
should  be  given  than  the  cows  will  eat  up  clean,  otherwise 
the  feeding  boxes  may  become  stale.  The  best  way  to  get 
good  flavored  milk  is  to  feed  only  such  foods  as  will  give  a 
good  flavor.  A  plentiful  supply  of  salt  always  within  reach 
will  improve  the  digestion,  increase  the  eating  power,  keep  the 
system  in  good  condition,  and  increase  the  flow  of  milk. 


Fig.  78. — The  udder,  left  s:de,  with  skin  removed,  a  is  an  artery  wi'h  branches  c,  d, 
and  e  carrying  blood  to  different  parts;  ^  is  a  vein  with  branches  g,  h,  ando;  /  is  a 
lymphatic  gland;  m  is  the  milk  vein;  t  is  a  nerve,  of  which  u  is  a  branch  and  x  is  a 
continuation.  Beneath  and  connected  with  the  above  parts  is  a  milk  gland,  the  outlets 
of  which  are  through  these  two  teats.  In  the  upper  part  of  each  of  the  teals  is  a  small 
milk  cistern.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  udder  is  a  second  gland  having  outlets  through 
the  two  right  teats.  Out  of  the  blood  brought  to  the  udder  through  the  arteries,  th<: 
cells  next  to  the  glands  are  formed.  These  cells  are  gradually  changed  into  milk,  which 
•fills  the  glands  and  the  milk  cisterns,  and  passes  off  through  the  nipple  of  the  teats. 


PRODUCTS    OF    MILK. 


CHAPTER   XXXII. 


PRODUCTS  OF  MILK. 

CREAM. — The  cream  is  formed  by  the  particles  or  globules 
of  fat  which,  because  they  are  lighter  than  water,  rise  to  the 
surface.  These  globules  are  very  small—  it  would  take  about 
2,000  of  the  largest  of  them  placed  side  by  side  to  make  an 
inch.  To  see  them,  they  must  be  examined  under  a  powerful 
microscope.  Some  of  them  are  smaller  than  others.  The 
larger  they  are,  the  more  rapidly  they  will  rise,  and  the  more 
quickly  and  thoroughly  the  milk  will  cream.  Milk  with  large 
fat  globules  is  therefore  adapted  to  butter-making ;  that  with 
small  fat  globules  is  well  adapted  to  cheese-making.  These  fat 
globules  are  not  transparent ;  therefore  instruments  are  some- 
times used  to  determine  the  quantity  of  fat  in  milk  by 
determining  how  much  water  must  be  added  before  the  milk 
can  be  clearly  seen  through.  Such  instruments  are  called 
"  lactoscopes." 

The  separating  of  the  cream  from  the  milk  is  done  either  by 
placing  the  milk  in  pans  or  cans,  and  allowing  the  cream  to 
rise  of  itself,  because  it  is  lighter  than  the  water  ;  or  by  running 
it  through  a  machine  called  a  "separator."  This  consists 
mainly  of  a  steel  bowl,  which  is  caused  to  revolve  at  a  very 
high  rate  of  speed.  The  water,  being  heavier,  flies  to  the 
outside  next  to  the  bowl,  and  flows  off  by  one  spout,  and  the 
cream  is  left  behind  in  the  inner  part  of  the  bowl,  and  flows 
off  by  another  spout.  In  order  to  allow  the  water  and  cream 
to  separate  more  easily,  the  milk  is  warmed  slightly  before  it  is 
run  into  the  bowl.  The  cream  by  this  process  is  separated  in 


148  AGRICULTURE. 

a  fresh,  sweet  condition,  whereas  by  the  "cream-setting" 
process  it  may  be  more  or  less  soured  or  ripened. 

The  richness  of  milk  in  cream  varies  greatly  with  the  different 
breeds,  the  different  animals  of  the  same  breed,  the  period  of 
milking,  and  the  portion  of  the  milk  taken.  The  strippings  or 
last  portions  of  the  milk  are  richer  in  cream  than  the  tore-milk 
or  first  portion  milked,  as  the  water  comes  away  from  the 
udder  in  larger  portions  at  first,  and  the  fat  appears  to  be  set 
free  in  the  udder  by  the  process  of  milking.  Ordinarily  cream 
will  contain  from  55  to  65  per  cent,  of  water,  25  to  40  per 
cent,  of  fat,  and  some  sugar  and  casein.  If  the  milk  sours 
during  creaming,  so  as  to  cause  the  casein  to  curdle,  more 
casein  will  be  carried  along  with  the  fat.  rl  herefore,  the  milk 
should  be  kept  cool  in  creaming  by  the  setting  process.  In 
creaming  milk,  the  purpose  should  be  to  remove  the  butter-fat 
as  thoroughly  as  possible,  in  as  sweet  a  condition  as  possible, 
and  with  as  little  water  as  possible. 

SKIM-MILK. — This  is  the  milk  that  has  been  skimmed  of  its 
cream,  or  from  which  the  fat  has  been  removed  by  the  separ- 
ator. If  we  could  take  all  of  the  fat,  and  only  the  fat,  we 
would  «still  have  left  in  the  skim-milk  the  water,  casein  and 
albumen,  sugar,  and  ash.  The  skim-milk  would  contain  a 
large  amount  of  very  important  food  compounds,  viz.:  casein 
and  albumen,  which  can  make  muscle  and  flesh,  or  form  fat, 
or  be  burned  up  to  produce  heat ;  sugar,  which  can  be  used 
for  producing  heat ;  and  ash  of  the  best  kind  for  making  bone. 
Thus  we  see  that  skim-milk  is  a  most  important  food,  only  the 
fat  is  lacking  to  make  it  a  perfect  food  for  young  animals.  We 
can  replace  this  fat  that  has  been  removed  in  the  cream  by 
mixing  with  it  a  small  quantity  of  some  oily  food,  such  as  a 
little  boiled  linseed.  If,  then,  we  take  away  the  milk  from  the 
young  calf  for  making  butter,  we  can  give  it  back  to  it  by 
adding  linseed  or  some  rich  meal  to  the  warm  skim-milk,  and 
thus  imitate  the  natural  cow's  milk.  When  the  cream  is 


PRODUCTS    OF    MILK. 


149 


removed  by  the  separator,  the  skim-milk  is  still  quite  sweet, 
but  when  we  allow  the  milk  to  rise  in  shallow  pans,  or  even  in 
deep  cans,  the  milk  may  become  a  little  soured,  unless  we 
keep  ice  or  cool  water  around  it.  When  liquids  become  sour 
it  is  because  of  the  forming  of  what  we  call  an  acid,  like  the 
acid  of  vinegar.  The  acid  that  is  formed  in  milk  when  it  first 
sours  is  called  lactic  acid  (from  the  latin  word  lac,  meaning 
"  milk ").  This  lactic  acid  is  formed  from  the  sugar  of  the 
milk  or  the  lactose.  Since  the  sugar  is  very  soluble,  any  water 
that  goes  off  in  the  cream  will  contain  lactose,  so  that  lactic 
acid  will  form  also  in  cream.  This  acid  at  once  acts  upon  the 
casein,  changing  it  from  a  soluble  substance  to  an  insoluble 
substance ;  therefore,  as  soon  as  acid  begins  to  form,  the  milk 
will  begin  to  curdle.  This  lactic  acid  is  not  nearly  so  valuable 
for  food  as  the  sugar  from  which  it  is  formed ;  therefore,  sweet 
skim-milk  and  sweet  whey  are  always  more  valuable  for  feeding 

than  sour  milk  or  sour 
whey,  and  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  them 
as  sweet  as  possible. 
But  why  does  milk  sour? 
What  causes  the  sweet 
sugar  to  change  to  the 

Fig.  79.-Yeast  plant,  magnified.  sour   acj<J  p       YOU     knOW 

that  yeast  causes  bread  to  "work"  or  to  ferment.  The  yeast  is 
a  mass  of  little  plants,  each  plant  very  simple  and  very  small. 
These  plants  feed  upon  the  substances  in  the  dough,  changing 
them  and  making  new  compounds,  some  of  which  are  gases. 
These  gases  push  out  in  all  directions,  and  make  little  air-holes 
all  through  the  bread,  causing  it  to  be  light,  as  we  say.  Now, 
yeast  is  only  one  kind  of  these  minute  little  plants.  They  are 
found  everywhere  floating  about  in  the  air  by  millions,  too 
small  to  be  seen.  Some  of  them,  we  have  already  stated, 
grow  in  little  knots  or  balls  on  the  roots  of  clover  and  peas. 


150  AGRICULTURE. 

Some  of  them  are  acting  constantly  in  the  soil,  changing  some 
of  the  humus  into  nitrates  for  the  roots  of  plants.  Some  of 
them  gather  on  cheese  and  form  blue-mold.  Some  of  them 
get  into  the  refuse  barrels  and  cause  decay  of  the  pieces  of 
food  thrown  therein.  Some  of  them  drop  into  the  cider  or 
wine  and  make  vinegar.  There  are  very  many  kinds,  each 
kind  working  in  its  own  way.  They 
can  De  recognized  only  by  a  very  power- 
^u'  microscope.  One  kind,  that  is 
very  common,  drops  into  the  milk 
anc^  changes  the  sugar  into  lactic 
acid.  Supposing  that  we  do  not 

Fig.  80.— One  of  the  ferments  ? 

of  mi.k,  magnified.  clean    out  a    milk    pail    or    a    milk 

can  thoroughly,  what  will  happen?  Many  of  these  little 
ferments,  or  bacteria,  as  they  are  called,  will  settle  on  the  sides 
and  get  into  the  cracks,  and  just  as  soon  as  milk  is  placed  in 
the  vessel  they  will  begin  to  act  upon  the  milk,  causing  it  to 
sour  rapidly,  or  to  produce  substances  that  have  a  nasty  taste 
or  an  unpleasant  odor.  If  there  is  any  trace  of  milk  left  in 
the  can  after  the  milk  is  poured  out,  they  rush  down  upon  it 
and  begin  to  feed  and  increase  in  number.  Any  dirty  places 
about  the  floor,  or  table,  or  walls,  will  also  cause  them  to  greatly 
increase.  Tainted  milk  is  not  pleasant  to  drink,  it  makes  poor 
butter  and  poor  cheese  ;  so  that  for  success  in  dairying  every- 
thing must  be  kept  clean,  very  clean — the  cows,  the  food,  the 
stables,  the  pails,  the  utensils,  the  milk  house,  and  the  dairy 
workers.  One  of  the  great  reasons  for  using  ice  and  cold 
spring  water  to  keep  the  milk,  cream,  and  butter  sweet  is 
because  these  little  ferments  cannot  do  harm  in  very  cold 
places.  They  do  their  work  only  when  they  are  kept  moder- 
ately warm.  Science,  then,  teaches  us  that  in  dairying  it  pays 
to  be  clean.  In  addition  to  ferments  which  may  get  in  from 
the  outside  it  is  thought  that  there  are  minute  forms  of  life  some- 
what similar  to  these  ferments,  which  are  contained  in  the 


PRODUCTS  OF  MILK.  151 

milk  itself.  These  work  changes  in  the  milk  and  milk  pro- 
ducts when  the  conditions  are  favorable. 

BUTTER. — We  have  referred  to  the  use  of  the  separator  for 
obtaining  sweet  cream  from  the  fresh,  warm  milk.  A  machine 
made  on  a  similar  plan  is  capable  of  so  throwing  the  particles 
of  fat  together  that  they  come  out,  not  in  the  form  of  cream, 
but  of  fine  butter.  This  machine  is  called  an  "extractor." 
The  butter  made  from  it  will,  of  course,  be  sweet  cream  butter. 
Ordinarily,  however,  the  cream  is  obtained  either  by  the 
separator,  by  setting  in  shallow  pans,  or  by  setting  in  deep 
cans  placed  in  ice  water.  Then  the  cream  is  allowed  to  ripen. 
This  ripening  is  caused  by  some  of  the  little  ferments  that 
were  referred  to  before.  These  get  in  from  the  air,  or  they 
may  be  placed  there  by  taking  a  little  cream  from  some  that 
has  already  ripened,  just  as  we  may  take  some  dough  that  has 
already  worked  and  place  in  a  fresh  lot  of  dough  to  start  it 
working.  At  once  these  ferments  begin  work,  and  produce 
changes  that  give  a  new  taste  or  flavor  and  a  new  odor  to  the 
cream.  If  we  allow  the  cream  to  stand  too  long,  or  in  a  foul 
atmosphere,  some  ferments  will  get  in  that  will  produce 
unpleasant  taste  and  foul  odors.  These  little  ferments,  then, 
help  us  in  our  work,  or  they  can  spoil  our  work.  We  must, 
therefore,  learn  the  methods  which  will  give  us  the  best 
ferments  to  assist  us  and  keep  out  the  bad  ferments  that  will 
hinder  us.  If  the  milk  or  the  cream  is  first  warmed  for  a  few 
minutes  the  ferments  in  the  milk  will  be  killed — the  milk  will 
be  "pasteurized,"  as  we  say.  Then  the  right  kind  of  ferment 
is  added,  and  the  ripening  of  the  cream  takes  place.  By  this 
method  the  making  of  butter  is  under  the  perfect  control  of 
the  dairyman,  and  butter  of  uniform  quality  is  produced. 

The  cream,  well-ripened,  is  placed  in  the  churn,  and  the 
action  of  the  churn  throws  the  little  particles  of  fat  together, 
until  soon  we  have  them  gathered  into  little  masses  ;  the  butter 
begins  to  come  in  little  grains ;  these  grains  gather  into  large 


152  AGRICULTURE. 

lumps,  and  soon  the  buttermilk  can  be  drawn  off.  The  buttev 
is  washed  in  the  churn  with  cold  water,  and  then  turned  out 
and  worked  and  salted.  The  buttermilk  contains  some  lactic 
acid  and  casein,  both  of  which,  if  left  in  the  butter,  would  be 
further  acted  upon  by  ferments,  and  disagreeable  compounds 
would  be  formed ;  therefore,  the  buttermilk  is  carefully  drawn 
off,  the  washing  is  thoroughly  done,  and  the  working  of  the 
butter  drives  off  the  last  traces  or  almost  the  last  traces.  The 
working  of  the  butter,  then,  is  to  take  out  the  rest  of  the 
buttermilk,  but  it  must  be  done  carefully,  so  as  not  to  break 
the  tiny  grains  of  the  butter  and  rub  them  into  an  oily  mass. 
Then  the  salting — what  is  it  for  ?  Salt,  we  know,  preserves 
food.  It  attracts  moisture,  the  moisture  of  the  buttermilk,  and 
it  prevents  the  ferments  from  going  on  with  their  work.  By 
all  this  process  we  have  got  rid  of  nearly  all  the  casein,  sugar, 
and  ash  ;  we  have  still  some  of  the  water ;  and  we  should  have 
all,  or  nearly  all,  the  butter-fat  that  was  in  the  milk.  Any 
sugar,  or  acid,  or  casein  that  is  left,  will  in  time  be  likely  to 
set  the  ferments  at  work  and  make  the  butter  rancid  or  stale. 

BUTTERMILK. — Since  cream  varies  so  much,  according  to 
the  system  of  getting  the  cream,  the  buttermilk  will  vary  a 
great  deal  in  composition  and  value.  It  should  contain  very 
little  fat  if  the  churning  has  been  properly  done,  less  than  one 
per  cent.  It  will  contain  a  little  ash,  quite  an  amount  of 
lactic  acid,  and  some  casein.  The  casein  will  vary  with  the 
system  of  creaming.  As  a  food,  it  should  be  used  as  soon 
after  churning  as  possible,  before  further  fermenting  is  set  up. 

CHEESE. — In  making  butter,  we  try  to  take  all  the  butter-fat, 
and  only  the  butter-fat,  out  of  the  milk  ;  in  making  cheese,  we 
try  to  take  all  the  casein  and  the  fat  out  of  the  milk.  If  we 
were  simply  to  take  the  casein  out  of  skim-milk,  we  would  get 
what  is  called  a  skim-milk  cheese,  or  a  skim-cheese.  Usually, 
however,  whole  milk  is  used,  and  a  great  many  different  kinds 
of  cheese  may  be  made.  The  milk  of  goats  and  of  ewes  is 


PRODUCTS  OF  MILK.  153 

sometimes  used,  but  the  cheese  of  this  country  is  made  almost 
entirely  from  cows'  milk.  Formerly,  the  cheese  was  made  in 
the  private  dairies,  but  now  principally  in  factories,  to  which 
the  milk  is  drawn.  The  cheese  usually  made  here  in  the 
factories  is  what  is  known  as  Cheddar  cheese.  It  is  more 
properly  called  American  Cheddar,  or  Canadian  Cheddar. 

The  fat,  as  we  already  know,  is  simply  floating  in  the  milk 
in  fine  particles,  but  the  casein  is  held  in  solution.  To  get  it 
out  of  the  milk  it  must  be  changed  to  an  insoluble  form. 
Rennet  is  the  substance  used  for  this  purpose.  This  is  an 
extract  obtained  from  calves'  stomachs.  If  a  little  rennet  is 
dropped  into  a  glass  of  milk,  the  casein  will  at  once  begin  to 
appear  as  a  flaky,  curdy  substance  with  the  fat  entangled  in  it, 
and  the  water  may  be  poured  off,  leaving  behind  the  casein 
and  fat.  In  the  factory,  the  milk  is  strained  and  run  into  large 
vats  that  have  a  larger  vessel  or  jacket  around  them  for  holding 
water  or  steam.  By  means  of  this  jacket  the  milk  can  be 
cooled  or  warmed,  as  the  maker  desires.  The  rennet  is  added, 
and  at  once  curdling  begins ;  the  proper  heat  is  obtained  by 
hot  water  or  steam,  and  the  curdy  milk  begins  to  "  ripen." 
Gradually,  by  working,  the  flakes  or  grains  of  curd  increase  in 
size,  and  when  the  proper  time  comes  the  water  is  run  off. 
This  water  or  whey  carries  away  the  sugar  of  the  milk  and 
most  of  the  ash  material ;  little  or  none  of  the  fat  should  float 
away  on  it  if  the  cheese-making  has  been  properly  done.  The 
curd  is  heaped  up  and  allowed  to  drain,  when  it  appears  as  a 
crumbled  mass.  Some  salt  is  added  and  mixed  with  it ;  then 
it  is  run  through  the  mill,  and  is  ready  for  putting  up  in  pack- 
ages. These  packages  are  pressed  out  and  bandages  are  put 
on  them,  when  they  are  taken  to  the  curing  room.  The  curing 
of  the  cheese  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  making.  The 
room  is  kept  at  a  warm  temperature,  and  various  ferments 
work  in  the  cheese,  causing  changes  that  add  much  to  the 
flavor  and  lood  value  of  the  cheese.  The  fresh,  or  "green," 


154  AGRICULTURE. 

cheese  is  not  nearly  so  tasty  or  so  digestible  as  the  matured  or 
well-ripened  cheese.  If  the  cheese  is  allowed  to  remain 
exposed  to  the  air  it  will  mold,  and  its  value  will  be  greatly 
decreased.  Its  rich  flavor  depends  largely  upon  the  cream  of 
the  milk  and  the  changes  that  take  place  both  in  the  ripening 
in  the  vat  and  in  the  after-ripening  in  the  curing-room. 

WHEY. — If  we  remember  that  the  whey  contains  the  sugar 
of  the  milk,  most  of  the  ash,  and  some  of  the  albumen,  and 
casein,  and  fat,  we  shall  conclude  that  it  contains  some  food 
of  value.  But  this  value  depends  upon  its  being  used  while 
"  sweet,"  before  it  sours,  for  then  its  sugar  changes  to  lactic 
acid,  which  is  not  of  much  value.  As  a  food,  it  is  specially 
adapted  to  the  feeding  of  pigs.  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties 
about  cheese  factories  arises  from  the  souring  of  whey.  As 
before  stated,  success  depends  upon  keeping  the  factory,  the 
factory  yard,  and  the  milk  cans  absolutely  clean. 

We  may  sum  up  the  various  dairy  products  as  containing 
the  following : 

Whole  milk  contains  water,  fat,  casein,  albumen,  sugar,  ash ; 

Skim-milk  contains  water,  casein,  albumen,  sugar,  ash ; 

Butter  contains  water  and  fat  principally  ; 

Cheese  contains  water,  fat,  casein ; 

Whey  contains  water,  sugar,  ash,  some  albumen. 

The  average  composition  is  about  as  follows  in  every  one 

hundred  pounds  : 

Casein  and 
Water.  Fat.          Albumen.        Sugar.  Ash. 

Whole  milk. ..  87.0  4.0  3.5  4.8  0.7 

Skim-milk....  90.0  0.5  3.0  5.0  0.7 

Butter 10.0  86.5  i.o  0.5  2.0 

Cheese 35.0  33.0  28.0  o.o  4.0 

Whey 93.0  0.3  i.o  5.0  0.7 


THE   STRUCTURE  OF   ANIMALS.  155 


CHAPTER   XXXIII. 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  ANIMALS. 

PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS. — What  is  the  difference  between  a 
plant  and  an  animal  ?  It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  deter- 
mine whether  some  of  the  lower  forms  of  living  matter  are 
plants  or  animals.  In  the  higher  forms  the  distinction  is  easily 
made  by  us.  What  is  the  difference  ?  A  horse  requires  air, 
water,  and  food.  So  does  a  tree.  The  horse  takes  in  oxygen 
from  the  air  and  breathes  out  carbonic  acid  gas  ;  the  tree  takes 
in  carbonic  acid  gas  and  gives  out  oxygen.  The  horse  can 
move  about  at  will  to  seek  food ;  the  tree  remains  fixed,  and 
the  food  comes  or  is  brought  to  it.  The  horse  feeds  upon 
plants— organized  food;  the  plant  feeds  upon  crude  material, 
such  as  mineral  compounds  — unorganized  food.  The  plant, 
therefore,  is  built  up  from  the  simple  substances  in  the  air,  soil, 
and  water.  The  animal  builds  itself  up  largely  by  feeding 
upon  the  material  formed  by  the  plants.  This  distinction, 
however,  does  not  hold  in  the  case  of  all  plants  and  all  animals. 
Can  you  state  any  exceptions  to  the  above  ? 

BONES. — These  are  the  framework  or  foundation.  They 
largely  make  the  general  form  of  the  animal.  The  bones  of  a 
young  animal  are  pliable,  but  they  become  more  rigid  as  the 
animal  grows  older.  They  are  the  support  of  the  animal,  but 
to  enable  the  animal  to  move,  they  are  in  parts  joined  together. 
Notice  how  every  bone  is  suited  to  its  place.  The  skull  covers 
the  top  and  back  of  the  head,  thereby  protecting  the  brain. 
The  ribs,  front  and  back,  protect  the  heart  and  lungs.  Why 
are  they  not  closely  joined  together,  as  the  bones  of  the  skull  ? 
The  bones  arj  suited  in  size  and  length  to  the  uses  required 


156  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  bones 
of  the  arm  and  the  fingers.  The  bones  are  composed  of 
mineral  material,  phosphate  of  lime  being  the  principal  con- 
stituent. In  structure,  they  are  more  or  less  porous  or  cellular. 

MUSCLES.  — The  bones  are  ingeniously  joined  together  in 
many  places,  but  to  hold  them  together  and  to  move  them 
muscles  are  required.  In  some  places  these  are  large  and 
tough,  in  others  they  are  smaller  and  more  tender.  The  lean 
part  of  an  animal's  body  is  a  mass  of  fine  muscle  fibres.  Feel 
their  movement  on  the  inside  of  the  wrist  while  closing  the 
fist.  Grasp  your  upper  right  arm,  then  move  the  lower  right 
arm  up  and  down.  We  observe  that  the  muscles  that  do  the 
most  work  are  the  strongest  and  largest.  These  muscles  are 
in  all  parts  of  the  body,  crossing  and  overlapping.  By  con- 
tracting and  expanding  them  the  animal  moves  the  bones,  and 
therefore  the  part  of  the  body  containing  the  bones.  Around 
them  and  over  them  we  sometimes  find  layers  of  fat  which  act 
as  a  sort  of  packing. 

THE  ORGANS. — In  addition  to  the  ordinary  muscles,  there 
are  the  tongue,  the  throat,  the  stomach,  the  heart,  the  lungs, 
the  liver,  the  kidneys,  the  intestines,  etc.  These  are  different 
in  shape  and  different  in  their  uses,  but  all  are  very  much  like 
the  muscles  and  tendons  in  composition — they  may  be  called 
structures  of  muscles  formed  together  into  certain  definite 
shapes,  so  as  to  do  certain  definite  work.  The  skin,  the  hair, 
the  wool,  the  hoofs,  and  the  horns,  that  is,  the  outer  parts  of 
an  animal,  are  also  made  up  of  the  same  kind  of  material  as 
the  flesh  and  muscle. 

BLOOD.— "The  blood  is  the  life."  It  flows  through  all 
parts  of  the  body,  and  it  is  out  of  it  that  all  the  various  parts 
— bone,  muscle,  organs,  lean  flesh,  fat — are  formed.  When  we 
examine  blood  under  a  microscope  we  find  that  it  somewhat 
resembles  milk,  as  shown  in  figure  77,  page  144.  First  of  all, 
there  is  the  liquid  part,  which  is  called  p/asma.  In  this  plasma 


THE    STRUCTURE   OF   ANIMALS.  157 

are  floating   a  large  number   of  small  disc-shaped  particles, 
which  are  called  corpuscles.     Most  of  these  are  red,  and  thereby 
give  a  red  color  to  the  blood.     Some  are  white  corpuscles.     It 
is  by  means  of  these  corpuscles  that  much  of  the  material  is 
carried  through  the  system.     For  instance,  in  the  lungs  they 
take  up  a  load  of  oxygen  and  carry  it  to  all  parts  of  the  body 
and  bring  back  a  load  of  carbonic  acid  gas  to  be  breathed 
out  from  the  lungs.     In  the  plasma  is  contained  much  of  the 
material  that  goes  to  build  up  bone  and  flesh.     We  have  seen 
that  when  the  albumen  of  milk  or  white  of  egg  is  heated  it 
becomes  insoluble,  or  is  clotted.     When  acids  are  added  to 
milk,  the  casein  becomes  clotted.     In  plasma  there  is  a  similar 
nitrogenous  substance,  fibrin,  which  is  clotted  by  the  action  of 
the  air.     When  blood  flows  from  a  cut,  therefore,  the  clotted 
fibrin  and  the  corpuscles  that  are  entangled  in  it  form  a  cover- 
ing for  the  wound — otherwise  the  animal  would  bleed  to  death. 
When  a  clot  forms  inside  of  the  body,  circulation  stops  at  that 
point,  and  death  frequently  results.     In  a  man  the  blood  forms 
about  one-thirteenth  of  his  entire  weight. 

CONCLUSION. — Apart  from  the  water  of  the  body,  the  various 
digestive  liquids  and  agents,  and  the  blood,  we  have,  then, 
three  classes  of  compounds  in  the  animal  body — the  bones ; 
the  fat ;  and  the  muscles,  the  various  organs,  lean  flesh,  hair, 
hoofs,  and  horns.  The  bones,  as  we  have  already  stated,  are 
largely  made  up  of  ash  or  mineral  matter ;  the  fat  contains 
three  chemical  elements — carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen;  the 
third,  or  muscle  class,  is  made  up  of  five  elements — carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  sulphur.  To  show  in  what 
proportion  these  are  contained  in  an  animal's  body,  we  give 
one  example.  The  body  of  a  half-fat  ox,  after  the  removal  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  will  contain  in  every  100  pounds 
the  following  :  Water,  56  pounds  ;  flesh  and  muscle  material, 
1 8  pounds;  fat,  21  pounds;  bone  material,  5  pounds. 


158  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER   XXXIV. 


FOODS  OF  ANIMALS. 

USES  OF  FOODS. — First  of  all,  an  animal  requires  food  to 
build  up  its  body — to  form  bone,  flesh,  muscle,  organs,  skin, 
hair,  wool,  fat,  etc.  The  material  for  all -these  must  be  con- 
tained in  its  food  or  the  water  it  drinks.  In  the  next  place,  it 
requires  food,  or  fuel,  to  keep  it  warm,  to  supply  heat  to  the 
body.  Then  it  requires  food  to  keep  it  alive — a  horse  shut  up 
in  the  stable  without  food  for  a  single  day  will  suffer.  This 
food  is  necessary  to  replace  the  waste  constantly  taking  place. 
The  body  is  constantly  changing,  and  requires  food  to  renew 
it,  whether  the  animal  is  working  or  standing  still,  whether 
sleeping  or  awake.  In  the  fourth  place,  work  demands  food. 
An  engine  at  work  demands  a  supply  of  energy — this  comes 
from  the  burning  of  the  fuel  under  the  boiler.  A  horse 
moving  about  or  doing  work  requires  food  to  supply  energy. 
These  four  demands  are  made  upon  the  food  which  is  daily 
given  to  an  animal,  and  the  food  given  should  be  chosen  so  as 
to  supply  these  demands.  We  have  on  page  159  a  table  of  the 
composition  of  the  principal  foods  given  to  animals.  This 
table  is  simply  for  reference,  and  is  given  in  order  to  get  a 
general  idea  of  the  great  difference  in  the  various  foods  used. 

WATER. — We  see  that  green  grass,  roots,  and  fodder  corn 
all  have  a  large  quantity  of  water — from  75  to  over  90  per 
cent,  (that  is,  pounds  per  hundred) — whereas  hay,  straw  and 
grain  have  only  from  12  to  16  per  cent.  Young  plants  that 
are  cut  while  still  green  are  therefore  succulent  foods  and  are 
eaten  by  animals  in  large  quantities.  As  plants  grow  older 
and  mature,  the  amount  of  water  that  they  contain  gradually 
decreases. 


FOODS  OF  ANIMALS. 
COMPOSITION  OF  FOODS. 


'59 


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Albuminoids,  or 
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Linseed  

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Oil  Cake  (new  process) 
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160  AGRICULTURE. 

ALBUMINOIDS. — Compounds  like  albumen  or  white  of  egg, 
the  casein  of  milk,  the  gluten  of  wheat,  and  the  fibrin  of  meat, 
are  known  as  albuminoids  or  protein.  They  are  all  compounds 
containing  nitrogen,  and  are  the  flesh-forming  substances  of 
food.  They  are  very  low  in  roots,  a  little  larger  in  grass,  still 
larger  in  hay  ;  so  that  we  see  that  they  increase  as  plants  ma- 
ture. They  are  very  low  in  straw,  but  quite  large  in  grain. 
Why  is  this  ?  As  the  wheat,  oats,  and  other  plants  are  grow- 
ing they  take  up  food  from  the  air  and  soil  and,  until  blossom- 
ing time,  all  their  food  is  contained  in  the  leaves,  stalks,  and 
roots.  After  blossoming  the  seeds  form,  and  material  that  has 
been  stored  in  the  stalk  and  leaves  is  used  to  build  up  the 
seed.  In  most  plants  very  little  valuable  food  is  taken  into 
the  plant  through  the  roots  after  the  time  of  blossoming.  The 
leaves  continue  taking  in  carbon  and  the  roots  water,  and 
therefore  starch  and  sugar  continue  to  increase,  but  the  other 
substances  are  about  all  in  the  plant  by  the  time  of  full  bloom. 
Out  of  the  leaf  and  stalk  the  most  valuable  materials  are  then 
carried  into  the  seed ;  thus  we  find  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pound, the  fats  or  oils,  and  the  most  valuable  ash  compounds, 
especially  the  phosphates,  stored  up  in  the  seed  or  grain,  and 
not  in  the  straw. 

FAT. — For  the  reasons  just  given  we  must  look  for  fat  or  oil 
principally  in  the  grains.  Some  seeds,  such  as  flaxseed,  con- 
tain a  very  large  amount  of  oil. 

STARCH  AND  SUGAR. — These  materials  are  very  much  alike 
in  composition ;  they  are  composed  of  three  elements — 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Hydrogen  and  oxygen,  we 
have  learned  before,  are  the  two  elements  composing  water. 
These  two  are  found  in  starch  and  sugar  in  the  same  proportion 
as  in  water,  but  not  as  water,  and  therefore  such  compounds 
are  sometimes  called  "  carbo-hydrates."  They  are  found  in 
large  quantities  in  all  plants  and  parts  of  plants,  forming  as 


FOOD  OF  ANIMALS.  l6l 

much  as  70  per  cent,  of  some  kinds  of  straw.  Notice  that  this 
class  of  compounds  does  not  form  one  of  the  leading  classes 
of  constituents  of  the  animal  body. 

FIBRE. — Woody  fibre  this  is  sometimes  called.  A  young 
plant  is  easily  bent  and  pulled  to  pieces ;  it  contains  little 
fibre.  As  the  plant  grows  older  it  becomes  stiffer  and  tougher, 
because  the  fibre  increases.  Wood  that  we  burn  is  nearly  all 
fibre,  and  we  know  how  tough  and  indigestible  it  is.  There- 
fore, we  conclude  that  a  large  amount  of  fibre  makes  a  food 
less  valuable.  The  fibre  is  formed  from  the  starch  and  sugar 
by  the  addition  f)f  carbon.  It  forms  the  walls  of  the  cells  of 
plants,  and  therefore  is  sometimes  called  by  the  name  "  cellu- 
lose.' 

ASH. — The  ash  or  mineral  matter  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  plant,  but,  as  has  been  stated  already,  the  most  valuable 
ash  is  stored  up  in  the  seed  or  grain.  The  cell  walls  of  the 
plant  fill  up  with  carbon  and  ash  as  the  plant  grows  older,  and 
therefore  the  sap  cannot  flow  through  so  easily,  the  cells  dry 
up  gradually,  and  the  plant  becomes  stiffer  and  tougher. 
REFKRKNCES  : — 

The  teacher  who  wishes  to  study  the  subject  matter  of  this  chapter 
further  may  consult  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  by  Henry,  "  Cattle  Feeding," 
by  Armsby. 


1 62  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


DIGESTION  AND  USES  OF  FOOD. 

WHAT  is  DIGESTION  ? — The  food  which  the  animal  eats 
must  pass  into  and  become  part  of  the  blood  before  any  use 
can  be  made  of  it.  The  fuel  which  keeps  it  warm  or  supplies 
energy  to  enable  it  to  do  work  ;  the  compounds  which  go  to 
the  building  up  of  bone,  muscle,  flesh,  organs,  wool,  and  all 
other  parts  of  the  body ;  the  material  out  of  which  milk  is 
made — all  these  come  from  the  blood.  This  material  in  the 
blood  is  made  up  from  the  food  which  the  animal  eats.  The 
blood  may  be  called  a  liquid  flowing  through  the  body  con- 
taining the  material  in  solution.  But  the  solid  portion  of  our 
food  consists  to  a  large  extent  of  such  substances  as  starch, 
sugar,  fat  or  oil,  nitrogenous  compounds,  such  as  the  gluten  of 
wheat,  the  white  or  albumen  of  egg,  and  the  fibrin  of  meat. 
Of  these  sugar  only  is  soluble.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
change  these  insoluble  parts  of  food  into  soluble  forms  so 
that  they  can  pass  into  the  blood.  This  changing  them  into 
soluble  forms  in  the  various  organs  of  the  animal's  body  is 
"digestion."  The  changes  are  brought  about  in  the  mouth,  in 
the  stomach,  and  in  the  intestines,  and  the  agents  that  cause 
the  changes  are  ferments  somewhat  similar  to  the  minute  forms 
of  life  already  referred  to  in  the  curing  of  cheese,  and  nitrifi- 
cation in  the  soil  (see  pages  149  and  150.) 

There  are  three  forms  of  compounds  in  the  food  to  be 
digested  —those  similar  to  starch  (the  carbohydrates),  the  fats 
or  oils,  and  the  nitrogen  compounds  (the  albuminoids).  These 
we  shall  refer  to  as  we  follow  the  course  of  digestion. 


DIGESTION   AND   USES   OF    FOOD.  163 

THE  COURSE  OF  DIGESTION. — The  food  is  first  bitten  off  and 
taken  into  the  mouth,  where  it  is  cut  up  and  ground  fine  by 
the  teeth.  At  the  same  time  a  liquid  called  the  saliva  is  set 
free  from  glands  in  the  cheeks  and  under  the  tongue.  This 
saliva  not  only  moistens  the  food  so  that  it  can  slip  down  the 
throat  or  guilet,  but  it  also  acts  upon  the  starch,  converting  it 
into  sugar,  thus  changing  it  from  an  insoluble  to  a  soluble 
form.  Thus  digestion  begins  in  the  mouth.  Thorough 
chewing  of  the  food  not  only  breaks  up  the  food  fine  so  that 
it  can  be  acted  upon  by  the  juices  of  the  body,  but  also  helps 
to  set  free  saliva  and  mix  it  with  the  food  to  digest  the  starch. 
When  we  remember  that  starch  forms  a  very  large  portion  of 
most  of  our  vegetable  foods,  we  see  that  thorough  mastication 
the  food  is  very  necessary  to  good  digestion,  and  "  bolting '' 
the  food  by  man  and  many  other  animals  a  common  cause  of 
indigestion. 

The  food  passes  from  the  mouth  into  the  gullet,  which  is  a 
tube  formed  of  tough  elastic  rings  that  can  contract  and 
expand  as  required.  Through  the  gullet  it  passes  into  the 
stomach.  Here  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  gastric  juice, 
which  is  a  secretion  of  the  stomach.  The  gastric  juice  acts 
principally  upon  the  albuminoids,  changing  them  into  soluble 
forms.  Some  of  the  soluble  and  digested  food  here  passes 
into  the  blood,  but  most  of  it  goes  on  through  into  the  intes- 
tines. Just  below  the  stomach,  and  on  the  right  side,  is  the 
liver,  which  builds  up  or  secretes  a  liquid  called  bile.  This  bile 
flows  into  the  intestines  and  acts  upon  the  fat  of  the  food, 
forming  with  it  soluble  compounds.  Other  secretions  come  in 
contact  with  the  food,  acting  upon  the  albuminoids  and  starch 
to  complete  the  digestion  ;  and  through  the  walls  of  the  in- 
testines the  soluble  foods  now  pass  in  large  quantities  into  the 
blood.  The  rest  of  the  food  that  cannot  pass  into  the  blood 
moves  on  and  is  ex{)elled  from  the  body,  forming  the  solid 
excrement.  The  solid  excrement  therefore  consists  of  the 


1 64  AGRICULTURE. 

insoluble  portion  of  the  food,  that  which  could  not  be  digested 
by  the  secretions  of  the  mouth,  stomach,  and  intestines,  and 
any  soluble  matter  that  was  unable  to  get  into  the  blood  be- 
cause of  the  animal  being  fed  too  rapidly  or  in  too  large 
quantity.  Its  value  as  a  fertilizer  will  therefore  depend  upon 
what  we  feed  and  upon  how  we  feed.  It  may  be 'worth  much 
or  very  little. 

At  this  point  it  will  be  worth  turning  back  and  reviewing 
what  has  been  said  about  the  four  stomachs  of  the  ruminants 
(cattle  and  sheep),  the  small  single  stomach  of  the  horse  and 
the  pig,  and  the  long  intestines  of  the  pig. 

CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. — The  next  question  is  as  to 
the  movement  of  the  blood  through  the  body — the  circulation 
of  the  bloo^d.  We  start  at  the  heart,  which  is  the  headquarters 
of  the  blood  system,  the  pumping-station  of  the  system.  The 
heart  is  made  up  of  muscles  which  expand  and  contract  and 
thus  give  motion  to  the  blood.  When  the  heart  stops  beating, 
when  it  ceases  to  work,  the  animal  life  stops  and  death  takes 
place.  We  can  feel  the  beating  of  our  heart.  On  the  inside 
of  the  wrist  we  can  feel  the  throbbing  of  our  pulse.  On  the 
side  of  the  head  between  the  ear  and  the  temple  we  can  feel 
the  same  throbbing.  Where  do  you  find  the  pulse  of  a  horse, 
and  the  pulse  of  a  cow  ? 

You  have  doubtless  seen  an  ox  heart;  if  not,  try  to  get  one 
and  examine  it.  In  shape  it  is  like  a  large  pear  or  egg.  There 
are  two  divisions,  one  up  and  down  and  one  across,  dividing  it 
into  four  compartments.  The  two  smaller  divisions  in  the 
upper  or  larger  part  are  called  the  right  and  the  left  auricle, 
and  the  two  larger  lower  parts  are  called  the  right  and  the  left 
ventricle.  The  different  parts  of  the  heart  are  connected  with 
tubes  that  go  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  the  four  compart- 
ments are  connected  by  valves.  By  the  movement  of  the 
muscles  of  the  heart  the  blood  is  driven  along.  How  is  its 
course  directed  or  controlled  ?  Perhaps  you  have  seen  a  mill- 


DIGESTION   AND   USES   OF   FOOD.  165 

race  or  a  small  canal  with  a  swinging  gate  that  will  open  in  only 
one  direction.  When  the  water  rushes  against  it  one  way  it 
opens  the  gate  and  passes  on ;  if  it  rushes  back  it  shuts  the 
gate  and  thereby  stops  itself.  So  in  the  heart,  the  valves  open 
only  in  one  direction,  and  the  tubes  of  the  heart  have  valves 
that  allow  the  blood  to  flow  in  only  one  direction.  Thus  by 
means  of  these  automatic  or  self-closing  little  gates  the  course 
of  the  heart's  blood  is  controlled  and  the  circulation  is  always 
properly  directed. 

Now  let  us  very  briefly  follow  the  course  of  the  blood.  It 
comes  from  all  parts  of  the  body  into  the  right  auricle  through 
two  veins,  whose  valves  open  only  towards  the  heart.  The 
heart  contracts  and  the  blood  flows  into  the  right  ventricle 
through  the  opening,  whose  valve  opens  only  towards  that 
ventricle.  From  the  right  ventricle  it  goes  by  an  artery  to  the 
lungs,  where  it  gets  a  supply  of  fresh  oxygen  from  the  air  and 
where  it  gives  up  its  load  of  carbonic  acid  gas  to  be  breathed 
out  into  the  atmosphere.  Thus  purified  it  comes  back  by  the 
veins  to  the  left  auricle.  Then  it  passes  to  the  left  ventricle. 
From  the  left  ventricle  it  is  forced  out  of  the  heart  through 
the  arteries  and  is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  These 
arteries  divide  and  sub-divide  until  they  become  a  network  of 
fine  tubes  called  the  capillaries.  These  capillaries  uniting 
again  form  the  veins  which  carry  the  blood  back  again  to  the 
right  auricle.  Thus  every  beat  of  the  heart  sends  fresh  blood 
out  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  the  old  blood  comes  back  to 
be  purified  before  being  sent  out  again  through  the  arteries. 
The  veins  are  the  tubes  that  carry  the  old  blood  to  the  heart ; 
the  arteries  are  the  tubes  that  carry  the  fresh  blood  from  the 
heart.  We  see,  therefore,  why  the  cutting  of  an  artery  is  much 
more  dangerous  than  the  cutting  of  a  vein.  In  cutting  an 
artery  we  open  up  the  flow  direct  from  the  heart — the  sluice- 
gate is  opened  for  the  free  flow  of  the  blood. 

With   tha   stomach,  and   especially  with  the  intestines,  are 


1 66 


AGRICULTURE. 


connected  a  large  number  of  capillaries.     Into  these  flow  the 
dissolved  portion  of  the  blood.    After  passing  through  the  liver 

system  the  material  is  carried 
in  one  of  the  veins  to  the  heart 
(the  right  auricle).. 

In  Figure  80  we  have  a  con- 
densed and  modified  illustration 
showing  how  the  blood  circulates 
through  the  body.  The  arrows 
show  the  direction  of  flow.  The 
black  channels  are  the  veins,  and 
the  unshaded  the  arteries  (ex- 
cept Nos.  10  and  12).  i  is 
the  left  side  of  heart;  2,  the  right 
side ;  3,  the  aorta  from  the  left 
ventricle ;  4,  artery  to  abdomen  ; 
5,  capillaries;  6,  vein  from  ab- 
domen ;  7,  artery  to  head ;  8,  ca- 
pillaries ;  9,  vein  from  head ; 
10,  artery  from  right  ventricle  to 
lungs;  n,  the  lungs;  12,  vein 
from  lungs  to  left  auricle;  13,  ar- 
tery to  intestines ;  14,  small  in- 
testine; 15,  capillaries  and  veins 
from  intestines  carrying  away 
digested  food;  16,  portal  vein; 
17,  artery  to  liver;  18,  liver; 
19,  vein  from  liver  ;  20,  lacteals  ; 
21,  duct  leading  to  vein  going  to 
the  heart  by  which  some  ab- 
sorbed material  is  taken  into 
circulation;  22,  artery  to  the 
kidneys;  23,  the  kidneys;  24,  vein 

Fig.  80. -The  circulation  of  the          from  the  kidneys, 
blood  in  the  body. 


DIGESTION   AND   USES   OF    FOOD.  167 

Thus  we  have  seen  how  the  digested  food  gets  into  the 
blood,  and  how  the  blood  is  carried  through  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  next  question  is  as  to  what  is  done  with  this 
blood. 

USES  OF  THE  DIGESTED  FOOD. — The  animal  must  be  kept 
warm,  and  therefore  some  food  is  required  as  fuel.  The  oxy- 
gen of  the  air  comes  in  through  the  lungs  and  unites  with  the 
material  in  the  blood,  or  with  material  such  as  fat  formed  from 
the  blood.  To  keep  warm,  therefore,  food  and  fresh  air  are 
necessary.  Now  you  will  understand  why  brisk  walking, 
running,  or  working  in  fresh  air,  even  in  cold  air,  will  cause 
you  to  become  warm,  especially  if  you  have  been  well  fed.  It 
is  like  starting  a  fire  with  plenty  of  good  dry  fuel  and  opening 
the  draughts.  Then  there  is  bone  to  be  built  up  in  one 
place,  muscle  in  another,  wool  or  hair  in  another.  If  the 
animal  is  growing,  food  is  necessary ;  even  if  it  is  not  growing 
food  is  necessary,  for  the  old  parts  are  constantly  wearing  away 
and  new  parts  being  formed.  If  the  cow  is  giving  milk,  the 
material  of  the  milk  must  be  formed  out  of  the  material  in 
the  blood.  If  the  horse  is  doing  hard  work  there  must  be 
material  in  the  blood  to  replace  the  muscle  that  is  being  worn 
away,  and  also  to  be  used  up  to  produce  the  force  or  energy 
that  we  see  resulting  in  work. 

THE  WASTE  MATERIAL. — In  the  burning  up  of  food  to 
produce  warmth,  in  the  using  up  of  food  to  produce  work,  in 
the  working  over  of  material  to  form  flesh,  muscle,  fat,  bone, 
wool,  or  milk,  there  will,  of  course,  be  more  or  less  waste  or 
refuse  material.  How  is  this  refuse  material  got  rid  of  by  the 
animal  ?  In  three  ways  :  by  the  lungs,  by  the  skin,  and  by 
the  kidneys. 

THE  LUNGS. —  Animals  breathe  in  pure  oxygen  and  breathe 
out  carbonic  acid  gas  and  moisture.  They  should  therefore 
be  able  to  get  pure  air  and  not  be  compelled  to  breathe  over 
again  the  air  that  has  already  come  from  their  lungs,  for  it 


1 68  AGRICULTURE. 

contains  some  refuse  of  their  bodies.  If  we  shut  up  an  animal 
in  a  close  room  it  will  smother.  The  animal  must  have  fresh 
air.  Proper  ventilation  is  necessary  for  the  good  health  of  all 
animals.  Exposure  to  cold  draughts,  however,  must  be  care- 
fully avoided. 

THE  SKIN. — The  small  capillaries  come  out  close  to  the 
skin,  which  is  filled  with  pores  or  tiny  openings.  We  may  say 
that  animals  breathe  through  their  skin,  and  through  the  pores 
of  the  skin  rid  themselves  of  a  large  amount  of  used-up 
or  refuse  matter.  We  help  the  animal,  therefore,  by  keeping 
its  skin  clean.  When  we  curry  or  rub  down  a  horse  or  a  cow 
we  do  for  it  what  we  do  for  ourselves  in  taking  a  bath.  A 
clean  skin  is  necessary  to  the  health  of  an  animal.  We  should 
keep  in  mind  that  every  pore  is  the  outlet  of  a  little  drain 
whereby  the  refuse  of  an  animal  is  carried  out  of  its  system. 
If  these  little  drains  are  choked  up  sickness  may  follow ;  if 
they  are  kept  open  the  system  is  helped  very  much  in  its 
cleansing  process.  The  regular  and  proper  currying  and 
brushing  of  a  horse  means  more  work  from  the  horse ;  the 
currying  and  brushing  down  of  a  cow  means  more  milk. 
Cleanliness  always  pays.  Science  and  practice  are  agreed  upon 
this  point. 

THE  KIDNEYS. — The  blood  in  its  circulation  goes  to  all 
the  organs  of  the  body,  building  them  up  and  supplying  ma- 
terial for  their  various  uses.  All  parts  of  the  body  are  con- 
stantly changing ;  some  quite  rapidly,  as  the  brains  ;  some 
quite  slowly,  as  the  bones.  The  old  portions  that  are  being 
replaced  have  to  be  removed.  We  have  just  above  stated 
that  through  the  lungs  and  skin  carbonic  gas  and  water  are 
constantly  being  thrown  off.  But  there  are  many  other  sub- 
stances, such  as  the  nitrogen  compounds  and  the  mineral  com- 
pounds, which  cannot  escape  by  way  of  the  lungs  and  skin. 
How  are  these  got  rid  of?  The  kidneys,  which  in  human 
beings  lie  below  and  behind  the  stomach,  near  the  back,  are 


DIGESTION   AND   USES   OF   FOOD.  169 

the  organs  that  do  this  work,  freeing  the  blood  from  these 
refuse  compounds  and  passing  them  off  in  the  liquid  excre- 
ment or  urine.  This  liquid  excrement,  then,  is  a  solution  of 
material  that  comes  from  the  blood,  muscle,  bone,  etc.,  of  the 
body,  and,  therefore,  we  may  conclude  it  will  contain  valuable 
fertilizing  material,  more  valuable  as  a  rule  than  the  solid  ex- 
crement. The  liquid  excrement  consists  of  the  dissolved 
waste  of  the  blood,  muscle,  bone,  and  other  parts  of  the  body ; 
the  solid  excrement  consists  of  the  indigestible  and  undigested 
portion  of  the  food.  None  of  the  waste  nitrogen  or  mineral 
matter  of  the  animal  escapes  from  the  body  through  the 
lungs,  but  all  passes  off  through  the  kidneys.  Hence  the 
great  importance  of  carefully  saving,  by  litter  or  otherwise,  all 
the  liquid  excrement  for  use  as  a  fertilizer.  When  we  sell 
grain,  hay,  straw,  and  roots,  we  take  away  from  the  soil  of  the 
farm  all  the  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter  which  they  contain, 
we  really  sell  part  of  the  soil  upon  which  these  foods  grew. 
When  we  feed  these  to  stock  and  sell  the  animals  or  their 
products  we  sell  but  a  small  portion  of  these  soil  constituents ; 
by  far  the  larger  portion  is  found  in  the  solid  and  liquid  ex- 
crement. The  economy  of  feeding  stock  upon  the  farm  lies 
then  in  the  saving  of  all  the  excrement,  especially  the  liquid, 
and  returning  it  to  the  soil  upon  which  the  plants  originally 
grew,  and  from  which  we  wish  to  derive  more  food. 

CONCLUSIONS. — The  uses  of  food  in  the  animal  may  now 
be  stated  briefly  as  follows  : 

1.  To  produce  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm. 

2.  To  produce  force  or  energy  to  enable  work  to  be  done. 

3.  To  replace  the  waste  from  all  parts  of  the  body. 

4.  To  increase  the  body  in  bone,  muscle,  flesh  and  fat. 

5.  To  produce  milk,  wool,  etc. 

Every  animal  must  be  kept  warm.     Every  animal  does  some 
work  or  uses  up  some  energy  even  when  standing  still  or  lying 
down  ;  all  parts  of  the  body  are  constantly  wearing  away  and 
12 


I/O  AGRICULTURE. 

being  reformed.  Therefore,  first  of  all,  food  must  be  given 
for  these  three  purposes  before  any  increase  in  fat  or  flesh 
takes  place,  before  any  hard  work  is  done,  or  before  products 
such  as  milk  are  obtained.  It  is  only  from  the  excess  of  food 
that  the  fourth  and  fifth  uses  can  be  supplied.  When  we 
wish  an  animal  to  work  hard,  to  increase  in  flesh  and  fat,  or  to 
produce  milk  we  must  feed  liberally.  Poor  feeding,  there- 
fore, will  give  us  no  return  at  all  beyond  keeping  the  animal 
alive,  but  liberal  feeding  must  be  done  where  we  wish  to  get 
some  return. 

CARE  OF  ANIMALS. — If  we  leave  animals  out  exposed  to 
rough  weather  we  shall  have  to  increase  the  food  to  supply 
heat;  if  animals  are  compelled  to  work  hard  to  get  their  food 
or  are  restless  and  excited,  they  must  use  up  more  food.  The 
proper  housing  and  protection  of  animals  will  save  food,  and 
the  keeping  of  them  in  quietness  and  comfort  will  also  cause 
a  saving.  Thus  we  see  that  good  care  means  a  saving  of  food 
for  the  first  two  requirements  mentioned  before,  and  is  quite 
as  important  as  proper  feeding  ;  in  fact  good  care  is  one  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  good  economical  feeding.  Good 
feeding  implies  the  selection  of  the  foods  suitable  for  the 
wants  of  the  different  classes  of  animals,  the  preparing  of  the 
food  in  suitable  and  attractive  forms,  and  the  proper  care  of 
the  animals  during  and  after  feeding. 


BEES.  171 


PART   VI. 
CHAPTER  XXXVI. 


BEES. 

BEES. — We  can  carefully  observe  a  bee  on  a  thistle  top  or  a 
roadside  flower.  It  will  not  harm  us  if  we  do  not  disturb  it. 
There  are  two  pairs  of  wings  very  thin,  like  a  membrane,  hence 
the  bees  are  said  to  belong  to  the  order  of  hymenoptera.  When 
not  flying,  these  wings  fold  in  closely  together;  when  flying, 
they  spread  out  and  the  inner  pair  hook  or  hinge  on  the  outer 
pair,  so  that  the  bee  is  able  to  carry  a  heavy  load.  Perhaps 
we  can  see  the  long  tongue  which  it  can  thrust  away  down  into 
the  cup  of  the  flower  to  take  up  the  juice  or  nectar.  This 
little  tongue  can  be  twisted  about  as 
an  elephant  twists  its  trunk,  and  it  has 
a  sort  of  brush  on  the  end  with  which 
the  nectar  is  swept  up.  The  nectar  or 
sweet  juice  of  the  blossom  is  carried 
up  into  the  mouth  and  from  there  it 
passes  into  a  little  sack  called  the 
honey-bag.  When  its  honey-bag  is 
F\K.  81.— A  bee  gathering  full  it  goes  home  to  store  away  this 

nectar  from  a  blossom.  i  T  r  11  i 

honey.       If    we    could     see    its    legs 

under  a  magnifying  glass  we  would  notice  that  they  are  hairy 
and  have  some  hollows  along  the  side.  What  are  these  for? 
We  have  before  learned  that  the  blossoms  of  flowers  produce 
pollen.  Some  of  this  pollen  the  bee  needs  for  food,  and  the 
pollen  is  carried  home  in  the  hollows  of  its  hind  legs.  Some 


172  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  pollen  will  cling  to  other  parts  of  the  bee,  and  so,  when 
it  goes  from  one  flower  to  another,  it  frequently  carries  this 
pollen  to  blossoms  that  have  none  of  their  own  or  that  cannot 
use  what  they  do  have.  The  bees  (and  other  insects  also)  in 
this  way  help  to  make  plants  fruitful,  to  fertilize  them  as  we  say. 
But  there  is  another  part  of  the  bee  that  we  shall  find  out  be- 
fore we  desire  to  do  so  if  we  anger  or  disturb  it,  namely,  the 
sting.  It  is  found  in  the  rear  end  of  the  abdomen,  and  con- 
sists of  two  long  sharp  lances.  It  can  be  pushed  into  one's 
hand  but  cannot  easily  be  drawn  out.  When  the  bee  cuts  into  the 
flesh  it  throws  into  the  cut  a  drop  of  poison  through  the  lances 
with  which  it  pierces.  It  leaves  the  sting  in  our  flesh, 
causes  us  pain  because  of  the  poison,  and  itself  soon  dies.  We 
may  then  conclude  that  bees  will  not  readily  sting,  but  do  so 
simply  when  disturbed  and  as  a  last  resort  in  self-defence. 

THE  HIVE. — We  go  to  the  hive  and  there  we  find  perhaps 
20,000  of  these  honey  gatherers,  or  "workers"  as  they  are 
called.  Inside,  if  we  can  look  through  a  glass  side,  we  see  one 
larger  bee  surrounded  by  a  dozen  or  so  of  the  others.  This  is 


Fig.  82.         Drone.  Queen.  Worker. 

the  Queen  or  mother  bee,  whose  duty  it  is  to  lay  eggs.  There 
is  only  one  Queen.  After  once  settling  down  as  the  mother 
of  the  hive  she  never  goes  out  except  when  "swarming,'' 
but  day  after  day  lays  eggs,  as  many  as  2,000  in  a  single 
day.  Then  we  observe  some  others  that  do  no  work,  so  far  as 
we  can  see,  they  are  the  "  drones."  The  family  or  swarm  then 
will  consist  of  one  Queen  bee,  20,000  or  more  workers,  and 


BEES.  173 

500  to  1,000  drones.  The  Queen  is  the  female  or  mother  that 
lays  the  eggs,  the  workers  are  females  that  gather  the  nectar 
and  do  the  work,  and  the  drones  are  the  males. 

THE  COMB. — Next  we  observe  the  comb.  It  is  made  up  of 
hundreds  of  cells  in  which  the  honey  is  being  packed,  and  in 
which  young  bees  are  being  hatched.  In  shape  they  are  six- 
sided.  Why  six-sided?  If  you  draw  a  lot  of  circles  touching 
one  another  there  will  be  some  vacant  spaces  between.  If  you 
draw  squares  or  triangles  you  can  fit  them  closely  together,  but 
there  will  be  sharp  corners  to  fill  in.  Now  if  you  draw  a  lot  of 
regular  six-sided  figures  you  can  fit  them  all  together,  there 
will  be  no  vacant  spaces,  and  no  sharp  corners.  Cells  of  that 
shape  will  be  strongly  built.  In  fact  you  cannot  improve  on 
the  shape  of  the  cell  which  the  bee  makes.  The  comb  is 
made  up  of  wax,  bees-wax  we  call  it.  The  bees  make  this  out 
of  honey,  but  it  takes  some  time,  and  therefore  bee-keepers 
help  the  bees  in  their  work  by  starting  it  for  them.  They 
make  the  beginnings  or  foundations  of  the  combs  for  the  bees. 
These  foundations  are  put  in,  and  when  completed  by  the 
bees  can  be  easily  taken  out  separately.  This  is  one  reason 
why  we  get  much  more  honey  from  our  hives  than  we  would 
from  the  wild  hives  of  the  bees  where  they  have  to  be  con- 
stantly making  the  whole  cells  for  themselves. 

Some  of  the  cells  are  used  for  storing  honey  and  pollen,  and 
some  are  used  by  the  Queen  bee  for  hatching  out  the  young  bees. 
The  egg  is  laid  in  the  cell  by  the  Queen.  Then  the  workers  place 
beside  it  some  jelly  made  up  of  honey  and  pollen  to  be  used 
as  food.  In  about  three  days  the  egg  hatches  and  a  little 
larva  appears.  This  feeds  and  grows,  and  in  about  six  days 
fills  up  the  cell.  Then  the  bees  put  a  cover  or  lid  of  wax 
thread  on  the  cell,  the  larva  goes  into  the  second  or  pupa 
stage  (see  page  no)  that  we  have  noticed  in  connection  with 
other  insects,  and  in  about  twelve  or  fourteen  days  the  perfect 
bee  appears  and  comes  out  of  the  cell,  a  worker  bee.  The 


1 74  AGRICULTURE. 

cells  in  which  the  drone  bees  are  hatched  are  a  little  larger 
and  the  time  to  form  is  a  few  days  longer.  When  a  queen 
bee  is  required  a  different  process  is  needed.  Perhaps  the  old 
Queen  has  died  or  is  going  away  with  a  swarm  to  form  a  new 
home.  A  larger  cell  than  either  of  the  others  is  made,  the 
egg  is  laid,  and  a  special  kind  of  food  called  "  royal  jelly  "  is 
placed  within.  In  less  time  than  before  the  young  Queen  bee 
appears.  Thus  it  takes  about  16  days  for  the  Queen  to  be 
produced,  21  for  a  worker,  and  24  for  a  drone.  There  are 
many  things  in  regard  to  the  production  of  these  three  classes 
of  bees  that  cannot  be  explained. 

HONEY. — The  bees  can  gather  honey  only  while  the  flowers 
are  in  bloom,  therefore  they  work  rapidly  and  store  up  large 
quantities  for  winter  food.  In  an  ordinary  hive  a  colony  of 
bees  will  put  away  from  50  to  100  Ibs.  The  bee-keeper  at 
the  end  of  the  season  takes  out  part  of  this  for  his  own  use, 
leaving  enough  for  the  use  of  the  bees  until  the  next  flowering 
season  comes  around.  But  what  is  the  honey?  The  bee 
takes  the  nectar  or  juice  out  of  the  flower ;  in  its  honey-bag 
some  slight  change  probably  takes  place,  and  in  the  cell,  before 
being  capped  over,  more  change  occurs.  But  just  how  nectar 
becomes  honey  as  we  know  it,  cannot  be  fully  explained. 

Bees  gather  honey  from  many  different  plants  that  blossom 
at  different  times  of  the  year,  and  the  honey  varies  in  quality 
according  to  its  source ;  thus  we  have  clover  honey,  thistle 
honey,  basswood  honey,  buckwheat  honey,  golden-rod  honey, 
etc.  In  fruit  blossoming  we  find  the  bees  in  large  numbers  in 
the  orchard,  and,  as  before  stated,  spraying  with  poisons,  such 
as  Paris  green,  should  be  discontinued  while  the  trees  are 
in  full  bloom. 

KINDS  OF  BEES. — Just  as  we  have  common  cattle  and  also 
pure-bred  that  have  been  improved  by  care,  so  we  have  different 
kinds  or  varieties  of  bees.  They  are  generally  named  accord- 
ing to  the  country  whence  they  come,  as  English,  Italian, 


BEES.  175 

Syrian,  Cyprian,  etc.  These  differ  just  as  much  as  Shorthorns, 
Jerseys  and  Ayrshires.  Some  are  quiet,  others  are  very  ill- 
tempered.  In  addition  to  our  honey  bees  there  are  other 
kinds  of  bees,  such  as  the  humble-bee,  whose  tongue  is  long 
enough  to  get  into  the  nectar  of  the  red  clover.  We  have 
here  given  only  a  very  few  of  the  simplest  facts  in  regard  to 
bees.  There  is  no  part  of  nature  that  will  be  found  more 
interesting  or  more  profitable  than  the  study  of  the  busy  bees. 

SWARMING. — In  the  fall  of  the  year  the  wild  bees  complete 
their  store  of  honey,  packed  away  usually  in  a  hollow  tree. 
As  the  weather  grows  colder  the  bees  go  out  less  and  less. 
Winter  sets  in  and  we  find  the  bees  all  bunched  together, 
clinging  to  one  another  in  a  half-asleep  mass,  a  drowsy  bunch 
that  can  be  handled  without  any  fear  of  stinging.  On  bright, 
warm  days  some  of  the  bees  may  venture  out  for  a  while.  In 
this  dormant  condition  they  eat  but  little.  Spring  comes  on 
and  the  early  flowers  appear.  The  hive  again  becomes  active 
and  the  hatching  of  the  young  brood  begins.  The  old 
queen,  with  a  part  of  the  bees,  starts  off  to  seek  a  new 
home,  leaving  the  old  home  for  the  new  queen  and  her 
followers.  Swarming  takes  place,  the  bees  fly  away  in  a  cloud 
and  settle  in  a  tree  probably.  The  bee-keeper  is  on  the  watch, 
he  follows  them  and  shakes  them  down  into  his  basket,  and 
places  them  in  an  empty  hive,  where  they  soon  take  up  their 
regular  work  of  storing  honey. 
SUGGESTIVE  : — 

Should  the  fruit  grower  keep  bees  ?     Why  ? 

Name  some  useful  honey-yielding  plants.     How  does  "  clover  honey  " 
differ  from  "  buckwheat  honey  "? 


1 76  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER   XXXVII. 


BIRDS. 

"  And  the  birds  sang  round  him,  o'er  him 
'  Do  not  shoot  us,  Hiawatha  !' 
Sang  the  Opechee,  the  Robin, 
Sang  the  Bluebird,  the  Owaissa, 
'  Do  not  shoot  us,  Hiawatha  ! ' " — LONGFELLOW. 

MIGRATIONS  OF  BIRDS. — As  winter  goes  and  the  warm  spring 
begins,  the  buds  show  life  and  the  grass  shoots  up.  Then  we 
look  for  the  return  of  the  birds.  They  come  back  to  us  at  first 
two  by  two,  or  in  small  flocks.  Sometimes  we  see  great  flocks 
flying  past,  high  over  head,  steering  straight  north  for  the 
regions  where  they  may  find  food  and  nesting  places.  They 
went  far  south  to  escape  the  winter's  snow  and  cold,  and  they 
come  back  to  us  to  build  their  nests  and  rear  their  young.  A 
few  of  the  fliers  may  stay  with  us  all  winter  long  if  they  find 
their  natural  shelter,  but  most  of  them  fly  south  in  the  fall  and 
return  in  the  spring.  We  look  for  their  coming  as  we  look  for 
the  spring,  and  we  are  never  disappointed,  though  year  by  year 
we  see  many  changes.  Some  birds  are  missed  and  new  kinds 
are  welcomed.  The  bluebirds,  for  instance,  may  disappear 
for  a  few  years.  We  think  they  have  been  driven  out  or  de- 
stroyed. If  our  eyes  and  ears  are  trained,  however,  we  may 
see  and  hear  them  passing  to  new  fields  further  north,  flock 
after  flock  of  thousands  passing  by  overhead  in  the  early 
morning. 

USES  OF  BIRDS. — Sometimes  we  think  they  do  more  harm 
than  good,  and  we  are  apt  to  call  them  a  nuisance.  But  how 
we  would  miss  them !  If  their  singing  and  chattering  were 
completely  silenced,  we  would  soon  wish  for  their  return;  and 


BIRDS.  177 

we  would  long  for  a  sight  of  them  in  their  varied  form  and 
coloring,  even  if  they  did  not  sing  for  us.  Many  of  the  wild 
birds,  the  game  birds,  of  course,  supply  food  for  man,  and  their 
usefulness  no  one  questions.  But,  apart  from  their  singing  and 
their  beauty  of  form  and  color,  of  what  use  are  the  other  birds 
— the  robins,  the  bluebirds,  the  yellow-birds,  the  blackbirds, 
the  woodpeckers,  the  blue  jays,  the  meadow  larks  and  the  very 
many  other  birds  of  our  gardens  and  fields?  That  depends  on 
what  they  feed  upon. 

FOOD  OF  BIRDS. — Many  birds  are  fond  of  fruit  and  will  take 
some  of  the  cherries  and  berries  of  the  garden,  others  will  help 
themselves  in  the  grain  field.  This,  however,  does  not  prove 
that  they  are  a  nuisance  and  should  be  destroyed.  As  a  rule 
the  birds  feed  upon  the  food  which  is  most  readily  got — weed 
seeds,  fruits,  or  insects.  If  fruit  is  plentiful  they  will  take  some 
fruit,  but  if  insects  are  about  they  will  greedily  pick  them  up 
and  in  quantities  that  will  astonish  us.  Birds  that  feed  upon 
insects  are  called  "insectivorous."  Most  of  our  common  birds 
are  more  or  less  insectivorous,  and  while  they  do  some  injury 
by  robbing  the  fruit  trees,  berry-bushes  and  grain  fields,  they 
do  far  more  good  by  devouring  great  quantities  of  insects  that 
if  allowed  to  live  would  inflict  most  serious  injury.  The  only 
way  that  this  can  be  proven  by  you  is  by  carefully  watching 
the  birds  as  they  go  about  through  the  garden,  or  as  they  carry 
food  to  their  nestlings.  On  examining  the  stomachs  of  many 
birds  that  are  supposed  to  be  the  most  destructive  to  fruit, 
large  quantities  of  destructive  insects  have  been  found.  If  the 
birds  do  take  some  fruit  it  must  be  remembered  that  as  a  rule 
they  pay  well  for  all  they  take.  It  may  be  set  down  as  a  safe 
rule  that  most  of  our  birds  do  more  good  than  harm,  and  our 
aim  should  be  to  encourage  them,  and  not  to  destroy  them. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  one  bird  will  devour  or  destroy 
about  2,400  insects  in  a  year.  Even  the  English  sparrow, 
blackbird,  and  crow  are  known  to  destroy  large  numbers  of 


178  AGRICULTURE. 

insects.  Birds  of  prey,  such  as  the  hawks  and  owls,  destroy 
large  numbers  of  field  mice  and  other  vermin  that  are  very 
injurious  to  growing  crops  and  stored  grain. 

PROTECTION  OF  BIRDS. — There  are  some  birds  that  appear 
to  be  very  destructive.  Some  hawks  are  much  dreaded  because 
they  kill  young  chickens  ;  the  crow,  blackbirds,  or  bronze  grakles, 
are  the  bitter  enemies  of  many  of  our  common  birds,  and  crows 
have  few  friends  because  they  pull  up  the  sprouting  corn. 
They  take  the  corn  at  that  time  because  it  is  softened  in  the 
soil  and  can  then  be  eaten  by  them.  Even  crows,  however, 
feed  largely  on  insects  when  insects  are  to  be  got.  The  Eng- 
lish sparrows,  also,  have  made  themselves  very  much  of  a 
nuisance  because  they  nest  about  the  houses  and  barns  and 
steal  oats  from  the  field.  Even  these  three  kinds  of  birds 
make  up  for  some  of  their  badness  by  destroying  insects.  One 
of  the  most  objectionable  birds  is  the  cow  bird  or  cow  black- 
bird, which  is  a  parasite,  that  is  it  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of 
birds  smaller  than  itself.  The  true  owners  of  the  nest 
are  pushed  out  by  the  intruder  when  hatched.  What 
we  need  to  learn,  however,  is  that  we  should  protect  most 
of  the  birds  rather  than  destroy  them.  Some  try  to  en- 
courage the  birds  to  nest  by  setting  up  small  houses,  placing 
empty  boxes  and  cans  in  the  trees,  hanging  pieces  of  twine  and 
hair  upon  the  fences  and  limbs  The  general  rule  that  we 
should  follow  is— leave  the  birds  alone,  do  not  molest  or  dis- 
turb them,  keep  away  from  their  nests.  They  will  soon  learn 
that  they  can  come  and  go  in  safety  and  build  their  nests  and 
rear  their  young  broods  without  fear,  and  year  by  year  they 
will  return  to  their  old  nesting-places  and  will  repay  us  for 
their  assurance  of  safety.  The  birds  are  the  farmers'  friends, 
but  they  must  be  treated  as  friends. 

How  many  birds  can  you  name  and  describe? 

What  birds  frequent  the  fields,  and  what  birds  are  found  along  the 
streams  and  small  lakes  ? 


BIRDS.  179 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  birds  of  your  locality  under  these  heads  : — Those 
that  make  their  nest  in  the  grass ;  those  that  nest  about  the  house  and 
barn;  those  that  nest  in  the  orchard  trees;  those  that  nest  in  the  foliage  of 
forest  trees;  those  that  seek  a  hollow  in  the  tree. 

What  birds  of  your  locality  rear  two  broods  in  one  season  ? 

Which  are  the  best  singers  of  your  birds  ? 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  bluebird  and  a  bluejay  ?  Between  a 
blackbird  and  a  crow  blackbird  ?  Between  a  wren  and  a  greybird  ? 
Between  a  cedar  bird  and  a  grosbeak  ?  Between  a  barn  swallow  and  a 
field  sparrow  ?  Between  a  robin  and  a  Baltimore  oriole  ? 


"It  is  well  known  that  of  the  various  groups  of  birds  the  majority  live 
upon  insects.  Among  the  insect  eaters  are  the  fly  catchers,  warblers, 
woodpeckers,  nuthatches,  orioles,  goat  suckers,  hummingbirds,  tanagers, 
waxwings,  gnatcatchers,  kinglets,  vireos,  thrushes,  wrens,  titmice,  cuckoos, 
swallows,  shrikes,  thrashers,  creepers  and  bluebirds. 

"  It  is  not  generally  known,  however,  that  the  so-called  seed-eaters 
feed  their  young  largely  upon  insects,  and  eat  a  great  many  themselves; 
nor  is  it  realized  how  much  good  they  do  by  eating  weed  seeds.  Professor 
F.  E.  L.  Beal  has  calculated  that  the  little  tree  sparrow  in  Iowa  alone 
destroys  1,720,000  Ibs.  of  noxious  weed  seeds  every  year.  Moreover,  in 
summer  seed-eaters  cat  blueberries,  huckleberries,  striwberries  and  rasp- 
berries, and  distribute  their  seeds  unhaimed  over  thousands  of  acres  which 
would  not  otherwise  support  such  growth. 

"  After  the  examination  of  about  forty  birds,  the  only  one  actually 
sentenced  to  death  is  the  English  sparrow.  Of  all  the  accused  hawks 
only  three  have  been  found  guilty  of  the  charges  made  against  them— the 
goshawk,  Cooper's,  and  the  sharp  shinned — while  the  rest  are  numbered 
among  the  best  friends  of  the  fruit  grower  and  farmer.  Of  the  wood- 
peckers, the  sap-sucker  and  redhead  may  be  beneficial  or  injurious, 
according  to  circumstances,  but  the  rest  of  the  family  are  highly  beneficial. 
To  most  of  the  rem  lining  birds  tried  the  evidence  is  decidedly  creditable. 
The  crow,  crow  blackbird  and  cedar  bird  are  acquitted,  as  doing  more 
good  than  hmn;  and  it  is  proved  that  agriculturists  owe  especial  protection 
and  friendship  to  the  phosbe,  kingbird,  catbird,  swallow,  brown  thrasher, 
rose-breasted  groslwak,  house  wren,  vireos,  cuckoo,  oriole,  shore  lark, 
loggerhead  shrue  and  meadow  lark." 

FLORENCE  A.  MERRIAM,  of  Washington,  D.C. 


i8o 


AGRICULTURE. 


"  Within  certain  limits,  birds  feed  upon  the  kind  of  food  that  is  most 
accessible.  Thus,  as  a  rule,  insectivorous  birds  eat  the  insects  that  are 
most  easily  obtained,  provided  they  do  not  have  some  peculiarly  disagree- 
able property.  It  is  not  probable  that  a  bird  habitually  passes  by  one 
kind  of  insect  to  look  for  another  which  is  more  appetizing,  and  there 
seems  little  evidence  in  support  of  the  theory  that  the  selection  of  food  is 
restricted  to  any  particular  species  of  insect,  for  it  is  evident  that  a  bird 
eats  those  which,  by  its  own  method  of  seeking,  are  most  easily  obtained. 
Thus,  a  ground-feeding  bird  eats  those  it  finds  among  the  dead  leaves  and 
grass;  a  fly-catcher,  watching  for  its  prey  from  some  vantage  point, 
captures  entirely  different  kinds;  and  the  woodpecker  and  warbler,  in  the 
tree  tops,  select  still  others.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  a  bird's  diet  is 
likely  to  be  quite  varied,  and  to  differ  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

"  The  practical  value  of  birds  in  controlling  insect  pests  should  be 
more  generally  recognized.  It  may  be  an  easy  mattter  to  exterminate  the 
birds  in  an  orchard  or  grain  field,  but  it  is  an  extremely  difficult  one  to 
control  the  insect  pests.  It  is  certain,  too,  that  the  value  of  our  native 
sparrows  as  weed-destroyers  is  not  appreciated.  Weed  seeds  form  an 
important  item  of  the  winter  food  of  these  birds,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate  the  immense  numbers  of  noxious  weeds  which  are  thus  annually 
destroyed. 

•'If  birds  are  protected  and  encouraged »to  nest  about  the  farm  and 
garden  th . y  will  do  their  share  in  destroying  noxious  insects  and  weeds, 
and  a  few  hours  spent  in  putting  up  boxes  for  bluebirds,  martins  and 
wrens  will  prove  a  good  investment.  Birds  are  protected  by  law  in  many 
states,  but  it  remains  for  the  agriculturists  to  see  that  the  laws  are  faithfully 
observed." 

PROF.  F.  E.  L.  BEAL,  B.S., 

Asst.  Ornithologist,  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 

Washington,  D.C. 


Build  houses  for  the  birds.     Nesting  boxes. 


FORESTRY.  l8l 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 


FORESTRY. 


THE  PRIMEVAL  FOREST. — What  was  the  appearance  of 
North  America  four  hundred  years  ago,  when  it  was  first 
discovered  by  Columbus  and  by  Cabot  ?  Let  us  turn  to  a  map 
of  the  continent.  Along  the  west  coast  we  have  the  great 
mountain  ranges,  beginning  at  Alaska  and  continuing  south 
through  Mexico.  These  were  covered  with  thick  forests,  in 
some  places  the  trees  being  of  enormous  size.  A  large  portion 
of  this  great  primeval  forest  still  remains  untouched,  especially 
in  British  Columbia.  Then  notice  the  mountain  ranges  on 
the  eastern  side.  As  they  cross  into  Canada  they  become 
lower,  branching  into  two  sections,  the  one  going  north-east 
through  Labrador  and  the  other  north-west  through  Ontario  or 
off  towards  Alaska.  In  between  these  two  branches  lies 
Hudson's  Bay.  This  whole  eastern  section  was  covered  with 
a  dense  forest  extending  from  Florida  to  the  bleak  lands  of 
Labrador  and  away  off  north-west  towards  Alaska  and  the 
barren  lands.  It  covered  all  of  the  Eastern  States,  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Canada,  all  of  Quebec  and  Ontario,  and  a  part  of 
the  North-west  Territories.  Down  through  the  central  part  of 
the  continent  stretched  the  prairies,  treeless  except  on  the  hills 
here  and  there  or  along  the  rivers. 

Much  of  this  original  eastern  forest  has  been  cut  away  by 
settlers  or  killed  by  forest  fires,  but  some  still  remains 
in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  Eastern  States  and  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Maine,  New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  and  Ontario. 


1&2  AGRICULTURE. 

RANGE  OF  FOREST  TREES. — This  great  forest  of  eastern 
North  America  was  composed  of  many  varieties  of  trees,  each 
variety  growing  where  it  thrived  best.  In  some  places  they 
were  mixed,  as  though  scattered  by  mere  chance ;  usually, 
however,  the  different  kinds  were  confined  to  certain  districts  , 
where  the  conditions  were  favorable.  Thus  we  here  and  there 
come  upon  a  white  pine  belt ;  in  one  place  we  find  a  forest  of 
maples,  in  another  oaks  or  elms.  As  climate  and  soil  are  the 
two  things  that  largely  control  or  determine  forest  growth,  we 
may  expect  to  find  the  various  kinds  of  trees  confined  to 
certain  limits.  If  we  trace  across  the  country  a  line  marking 
the  places  up  to  which  each  kind  of  tree  is  found  growing, 
but  beyond  which  it  will  not  grow  in  any  very  large  numbers, 
we  shall  thereby  get  lines  which  mark  what  are  known  as  the 
"  northern  limits  "  of  these  trees.  These  lines  will  not  run 
east  and  west,  nor  will  they  be  parallel  in  all  places.  The 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  and  the  inland  lakes  and  Hudson's 
Bay  have  the  effect  of  making  them  very  irregular. 

The  northern  limits  of  the  most  common  trees  will  be  found 
to  be  about  as  follows: — Chestnut,  black  walnut,  hickory, 
butternut,  red  cedar,  white  ash,  beech,  and  basswood  in 
southern  Ontario ;  somewhat  further  north,  hemlock,  red  oak, 
sugar  maple,  yellow  birch,  red  pine,  and  white  pine;  still 
further  north,  white  elm,  black  ash,  balsam,  poplar,  and  spruce. 

It  must  be  noted  that  this  order  is  not  always  followed,  as 
both  soil  and  climate  have  their  influence,  and  the  effect  of 
fire  has  been  to  change  the  nature  of  the  forests.  As  a  rule 
evergreens  will  grow  in  colder  climate  than  the  trees  that  shed 
their  leaves  (deciduous),  and  of  the  latter  the  nut-bearing 
varieties  are  usually  found  in  the  milder  climate. 

An  interesting  study  is  to  find  out  the  different  trees  growing 
in  a  locality,  and  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which 
they  thrive ;  which,  for  instance,  grow  in  low,  damp  places, 
and  which  in  dry,  gravelly  soil,  or  on  rocky  hills. 


FORESTRY.  183 

DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  FOREST. — What  has  destroyed  this 
great  forest  ?  First  of  all,  the  settler  had  to  clear  the  soil  for 
his  roads  and  for  his  fields  of  grain  and  of  pasture.  In  early 
days  of  settlement  two  of  the  principal  products  of  the  farm 
were  the  logs  and  timber  from  the  body  of  the  trees  and  the 
ashes  made  from  burning  the  top  branches  and  small  cuttings. 
To-day  the  cutting  of  lumber  is  removing  year  by  year  large 
quantities  of  trees,  but  the  natural  growth  of  young  trees  is 
more  than  sufficient  to  make  up  for  this  cutting,  if  properly 
carried  on.  The  great  agent  of  destruction  to-day  is  fire. 
One  forest  fire  will  sweep  away  or  destroy  in  a  few  weeks  in 
summer  or  autumn  far  more  than  all  the  lumbermen  remove. 
The  fire  burns  rapidly  because  of  the  inflammable  material, 
such  as  resin,  in  the  evergreens.  At  the  same  time  it  destroys 
the  young  sprouting  seedlings  and  the  seeds  also,  which  would 
otherwise  soon  start  a  new  forest  that  in  twenty- five  or  forty 
years  would  replace  the  old  forest. 

BENEFITS  OF  FORESTS. — Of  what  use  are  the  forests?  In 
the  first  place,  they  are  a  great  protection  against  cold  winds, 
modifying  the  climate  as  great  wind-breaks.  They  also  hold 
back  the  snows  of  winter,  preventing  spring  freshets.  When 
the  country  is  laid  bare  of  its  trees,  the  creeks  and  streams  are 
full  in  early  spring  and  dry  in  midsummer. 

Although  the  trees  give  off  enormous  quantities  of  water 
through  their  leaves,  yet  they  hold  back  or  store  up  in  the 
loose  leaf  mold  larger  amounts  of  water.  The  trees,  therefore, 
hold  back  the  snow,  and  later  hold  back  the  water,  and  thereby 
save  the  creeks  from  becoming  dry.  They  also  save  the  hills 
from  being  washed  bare.  The  loss  of  soil  washings  by  the 
creeks  in  spring  is  heavy.  Every  spring,  therefore,  should  be 
shaded  by  trees  at  its  source,  and  every  stream,  no  matter  how 
small,  should  be  protected,  not  alone  at  its  source  in  the  high 
lands,  but  also  along  its  course,  by  at  least  a  fringe  of  trees. 


184  AGRICULTURE. 

In  the  next  place,  the  forests  are  the  home  of  birds  and 
game,  which  are  a  source  of  supply  of  food  and  furs. 

Trees  and  forests  also  add  to  the  fine  appearance  of  a 
country,  whether  found  along  the  streams  and  rivers  or  on  the 
hill  tops.  Trees  for  all  hilly  country  is  a  good  rule  to  follow. 
It  is  there  that  the  streams  take  their  rise.  Land  there  is  of 
less  value  for  grain  crops.  When  we  lay  bare  the  hills  we  cut 
down  the  wind-breaks,  we  dry  up  the  springs  and  streams,  and 
we  leave  a  poor  soil,  to  be  made  poorer  by  the  washing  of  the 
rains  and  the  blowing  of  the  winds.  We  should  remember 
that  the  forest  is  a  crop  of  the  farm,  and  its  nature  should  be 
considered  as  carefully  as  that  of  any  other  crop  of  the  farm. 

THE  FOREST  AS  A  PRODUCER  OF  CROPS. — If  the  trees  are 
a  crop,  how  should  that  crop  be  harvested?  We  cut  down  all 
of  a  wheat  crop  at  one  time.  If  we  are  growing  a  crop  of  corn 
for  green  ears  we  do  not  pick  all  at  once,  but  go  over  the  field 
again  and  again,  taking  the  ears  that  are  full-grown  and  leaving 
the  small  ears  to  grow  larger.  If  we  were  to  cut  down  a  whole 
forest  or  a  wood,  as  we  do  a  crop  of  wheat,  we  would  have  to 
wait  many  years  for  a  new  crop.  But  if  we  take  out  each  year 
only  the  largest  trees,  and  leave  the  others  standing  until  they 
grow  to  full-size,  we  can  harvest  a  crop  of  trees  every  year,  and  at 
the  same  time  assist  the  smaller  trees  to  grow  more  tapidly. 
The  cutting  down  of  trees,  large  and  small  alike,  is  wasteful; 
the  proper  cutting  of  trees,  leaving  the  young  forest  to  make 
growth,  is  alone  worthy  of  the  name  of  forestry. 

There  is  only  one  way  in  which  to  become  acquainted  with 
trees,  and  that  is  by  studying  the  trees  themselves  as  they  are 
growing.  In  studying  a  tree  the  following  points  are  to  be 
noticed.  First,  as  to  whether  it  is  an  evergreen  or  whether  it 
sheds  its  leaves  (that  is,  deciduous) ;  second,  the  general  shape 
of  the  tree,  whether  it  grows  tall  or  spreads  out,  how  it 
branches ;  third,  the  form  of  its  leaves ;  fourth,  the  nature  of 
its  bark ;  and,  fifth,  the  nature  and  form  of  its  seeds  or  nuts. 


FORESTRY.  185 

Contrast  the  cedar  and  the  maple  ;  contrast  the  branching 
of  the  elm  and  of  the  beech  ;  contrast  the  leaves  of  the  maple, 
of  the  oak,  and  of  the  ash  ;  contrast  the  bark  of  the  hickory 
and  of  the  birch  ;  contrast  the  seeds  of  the  pine  and  of  the 
basswood. 

THE  FOREST  TREE  NURSERY. — Every  farm  should,  and 
every  school  might,  have  a  small  nursery,  a  plot  fenced  off  so 
that  cattle  and  pigs  cannot  get  into  it,  and  which  should  be  as 
well  tended  as  a  flower  garden.  Here  are  the  instructions  of  a 
forester,  Sir  Henri  Joly,  of  Quebec  : — "With  a  little  attention, 
it  is  easy  to  tell  when  the  seeds  are  ripe.  Thus,  toward  the 
end  of  June  and  early  in  July  the  seeds  of  the  elm  and  those 
of  the  plane  are  ripe;  if  you  sow  them  at  once,  they  will  shoot 
up  nearly  a  foot  that  same  summer.  The  seeds  of  the  maple, 
ash,  oak,  wild  cherry,  and  walnut  mature  in  the  autumn ;  it  is 
better  to  sow  them  immediately  than  to  keep  them  in  the  house 
all  winter.  Sow,  let  us  say,  maple  seeds  half  an  inch  deep, 
and  others,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  two  or  three  inches  for 
nuts.  Sow  thickly,  and  after  the  first  year  you  can  thin  them 
by  transplanting  some.  After  four  or  five  years  you  can  plant 
your  young  trees  where  they  are  to  remain.  You  should 
select  cloudy  or  rainy  weather  in  the  spring. 

"In  many  cases  you  can  even  spare  yourself  the  trouble  of 
sowing.  When  the  ground  is  favorable  in  July  or  August, 
along  the  ditches,  the  woods,  the  fences,  in  the  moss,  in  damp 
places,  in  the  neighborhood  of  (he  elms  and  the  planes,  you 
will  find  hundreds  of  little  shoots  which  have  sprung  from  the 
seeds  fallen  from  the  trees;  plant  them  in  your  nursery. 

"The  seed  of  the  pine  is  very  difficult  to  gather.  Early  in 
the  spring,  in  the  pastures  near  the  pines,  you  can  pull  up, 
when  the  soil  is  damp,  as  many  little  trees  as  you  will  wish  to 
plant;  for  this  kind  it  will  be  better  to  take  the  precaution  to 
shelter  them  from  the  sun  until  they  have  taken  root." 
13 


1 86  AGRICULTURE. 

From  this  nursery  you  can  set  out  a  row  of  maples  or  elms 
along  the  main  road  and  the  lane,  taking  care  to  keep  them 
well  apart,  so  that  they  will  branch  out  and  not  shade  the  road 
too  much ;  you  can  also  plant  a  wind-break  for  the  house  and 
the  garden ;  you  can  cover  the  hilly  ground  and  protect  all 
springs  and  water  courses ;  you  can  also  plant  a  small  clump 
in  a  corner  of  the  pasture,  being  careful  to  protect  it  from  the 
cattle  till  well  grown ;  you  can  locate  a  few  trees  near  the 
house,  but  not  too  near.  There  will  be  no  difficulty  in  finding 
a  place  for  every  tree,  and,  if  properly  cared  for,  every  tree 
thus  set  out  will  add  to  the  value  of  the  farm  or  the  home. 

1.  How  many  different  kinds  of  maple,  of  oak,  of  birch,  of  cedar,  of 
elm,  of  ash  and  of  pine  are  found  in  your  neighborhood? 

2.  What  is  pulp  ?     What  trees  are  used  for  producing  pulp  ? 

3.  Which  is  more  valuable,  a  pine  from  the  open  or  one  from  a  pine 
forest?     Why? 

4.  Why  will  a  hollow  tree  live  and  a  girdled  tree  die  ? 

5.  What  causes  the  rings  in  a  tree,  and  the  grain  in  a  board  ?     How  can 
you  tell  a  tree's  age  ? 

6.  How  is  maple  syrup  made?     When?     Do  any  other  trees   give 
similar  products? 

7.  What  causes  a  knot  in  a  pine  board  and  a  burl  in  an  oak  tree  ? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  on  forest  growth  of  allowing  cattle  to  browse  and 
range  through  the  wood  lot. 

9.  What  are  the  principal  uses  in   manufacture  of  maple,   ash,   elm, 
birch,  oak,  hickory,  basswood,  black  walnut,  cedar,  hemlock,  spruce,  and 
white  pine  ? 

10.  Explain  the  difference  between  log,  timber,  and  lumber  ;  board, 
plank,   and   deal ;   straight-cut   and   quarter-cut ;  selected,  mill-run,  and 
culls.     How  is  lumber  measured  ? 


Cone  of  white  pine.     (One  half  natural  size.) 


ROADS.  187 


CHAPTER   XXXIX. 


ROADS. 

"  A  good  road  is  one  that  is  good  in  bad  weather." 

EARLY  ROADS. — The  Indians  made  their  journeys  by  canoe 
routes  and  by  trails.  The  former  followed  the  winding  streams 
and  lakes,  shortened  in  places  by  portages  or  "carries."  The 
latter  were  narrow  footpaths  that  wound  in  and  out,  up  and 
down,  following  the  easiest  natural  route.  There  was  little  or 
no  attempt  at  making  or  improving  the  road  or  path.  Large 
stones  and  fallen  trees  were  avoided,  not  removed,  and  a  good 
surface  to  the  path  was  got  only  by  long  use,  not  by  any 
attempt  at  direct  improvement.  The  condition  of  the  roads 
is  a  fair  test  of  civilization  —the  savages  do  not  make  roads. 

When  the  settlers  first  came  into  the  forest  to  make  their 
homes,  the  first  thing  required  was  a  road  by  which  to  get  in  to 
and  on  to  the  lot.  This  road  was  made  as  quickly  and  as 
cheaply  as  possible.  The  trees  were  cleared  away,  making  the 
"  road  allowance,"  some  of  the  stumps  were  removed,  and  the 
road  was  thus  used  in  its  first  stage.  It  was  found,  however, 
that  such  a  road  was  impassable  and  useless  in  the  spring  and 
fall  or  during  heavy  rains, — it  needed  drainage.  Then  followed 
the  next  improvement,  namely,  the  cutting  of  a  ditch  on  each 
side,  the  dirt  from  which  was  thrown  upon  the  road,  thereby 
raising  the  centre  a  little  above  the  sides.  This  second  stage 
was  a  great  improvement ;  the  water  drained  off  into  the 
side  ditches,  and  the  roadway  was  kept  fairly  dry.  The  wheels 
of  carts  and  the  feet  of  horses  and  of  oxen  do  not  cut  into  the 
dry  earth  so  easily  as  into  the  mud.  Such  a  road  as  this  we 
call  a  dirt  or  earth  road.  Many  are  still  found,  and  they  are 


1 88  AGRICULTURE. 

the  only  kind  of  road  possible  in  certain  places,  but  in  order 
to  be  useful  they  must  be  kept  well  rounded  up  and  well 
drained  on  the  sides.  The  greatest  enemy  of  all  roads  is  water, 
whether  it  is  water  in  the  material  of  the  road  or  on  the  surface 
of  the  road.  The  frost  can  do  no  damage  unless  there  is  water 
in  the  road.  You  know  that  water  expands  when  it  freezes,  so 
that  when  a  wet  road  freezes  it  heaves,  and  becomes  broken 
up.  This,  then,  is  the  first  principle  of  road-making — keep  it 
dry  by  open  drains  on  the  side,  or  by  covered  tile  drains  on 
the  side,  or  by  tile  drains  below  the  road. 

The  next  principle  in  road-making  is  to  get  a  fairly  hard 
surface.  In  early  days  the  settlers  sometimes  cut  down  small 
trees,  and,  after  trimming  them,  laid  them  side  by  side  across 
the  dirt  road.  By  this  means  there  was  made  a  surface  that 
was  hard  but  a  little  rough.  Such  a  road,  from  its  ribbed 
nature,  was  called  a  "corduroy"  road.  Later  on,  when  saw- 
mills became  common,  sawn-planks  were  sometimes  laid  down, 
forming  a  plank  road.  The  object  in  both  cases  was  to 
get  a  hard,  level  surface.  A  horse  can  pull  but  a  light  load 
through  loose  sand  or  deep  miry  mud ;  he  can  draw  much 
more  on  a  hard,  level  road ;  he  can  draw  still  more  on  a  level 
steel  track.  Why  is  this  so  ? 

GRAVEL  ROADS. — Another  way  to  harden  the  surface  is  to 
put  hard,  stony  material  upon  it.  First  of  all,  good  gravel 
may  be  used,  and  a  coating  of  it  laid  along  the  roadway.  You 
will  at  once  ask  as  to  whether  loose  gravel  will  not  be  difficult 
to  drive  through.  So  it  is.  Therefore  we  must  get  the  gravel 
well  packed  together,  and  so  a  roller  is  used.  After  first 
rolling  the  dirt  roadway,  a  layer  of  gravel  is  put  on,  and  the 
heavy  roller  is  again  driven  back  and  forth,  every  time  crush- 
ing the  gravel  down  a  little,  and  packing  it  together  a  little 
more  closely.  This  should  be  done  scores  of  times  if  neces- 
sary. The  number  of  times  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the 
weight  of  the  roller;  a  heavy  2o-ton  steam  roller  will  not  need 


ROADS.  189 

to  be  passed  over  the  gravel  as  often  as  a  6-ton  roller  drawn 
by  two  teams  of  horses.  Unless  the  gravel  is  rolled  in  this 
way,  it  remains  loose  and  soft  when  the  fall  rains  come  on, 
the  wheels  of  wagons  cut  through  it,  and  mix  it  with  the  mud 
beneath ;  and  so  the  gravel  is  wasted  and  the  road  is  not  nearly 
so  good  as  it  should  be.  Then  more  gravel  is  put  on  and 
rolled  again,  and  a  nicely  rounded  or  crowned  surface  is  made 
which  will  shed  the  rain-water  into  the  side  ditches,  and 
which  is  so  hard  and  compact  on  the  surface  that  the  wheels 
will  not  cut  through. 

But  big  open  ditches  on  the  side  are  unsightly ;  they  get 
choked  up  with  weeds,  and  they  are  frequently  dangerous  to 
horses  and  travellers.  They  should  be  kept  clean,  of  course, 
so  that  the  water  will  not  stand  in  them.  But  the  better  plan 
is  to  put  down  a  covered  tile  drain  on  each  side  of  the  road, 
and  leave  only  a  shallow  ditch  above  it.  The  grass  will  grow 
over  this,  and  a  neat  roadside  will  result. 


Fig.  83. — A  gravel  road  properly  crowned,  with  side  ditches  and  tile  drains. 

In  order  to  get  a  strong,  tough  surface,  the  gravel  must  be 
well  packed  together,  that  is,  it  must  "bind."  If  we  mix 
together  in  the  road  coarse  gravel  and  fine  hard  stony  material 
and  soft  fine  dirt  the  road  will  soon  become  uneven.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  to  have  the  gravel  well  screened  ;  then 
the  coarser  part  should  be  spread  on  the  roadway  and  well 
rolled,  and  the  finer  gravel  spread  upon  it  to  form  the  surface. 
All  soft  material,  such  as  sods  and  loose  dirt,  should  be  kept 


190 


AGRICULTURE. 


out  of  the  gravel ;  in  short,  the  gravel  should  be  as  clean  as 
possible;  it  should  be  screened,  graded,  and  put  on  in  layers, 
and  should  be  well  rolled. 

STONE  ROADS. — As  a  rule,  gravel  is  more  or  less  rounded, 
and  therefore  does  not  at  first  bind  well.  You  know  that  a 
road  could  not  be  well  made  out  of  marbles.  To  bind  well 
there  must  be  sharp  corners  and  rough  sides  on  the  pieces. 
So  we  find  that  broken  stone  will  make  a  stronger  and  more 
durable  road  than  will  gravel.  But  we  must  remember  the 
points  already  referred  to,  namely,  the  road  must  first  of  all  be 
thoroughly  drained,  both  underneath  and  on  the  sides;  the 
stone  must  be  put  down  in  courses,  the  largest  below  and  the 
smallest  on  the  surface,  and  every  course  must  be  thoroughly 


Fig.  84.—  This  is  the  kind  of  road  that  is  made  by  placing  loose  stones 
on   a   dirt   road   without  prope 
stones  sink  through  the  mud  be 


.       . 

on   a   dirt   road   without  properly   preparing    the   foundation  —  the 
neath. 


rolled  as  it  is  laid.  It  is  a  mistake  to  leave  the  rolling  until 
the  road  is  all  filled  in.  The  dirt  sub-soil  should  first  be  well 
rolled.  In  using  broken  stone  care  should  be  used  in  choos- 
ing a  tough  rock  ;  if  the  rock  is  soft  it  will  soon  be  ground 
into  dust.  Tough  limestone  and  the  hard  rock  called  trap 
are  the  best.  Sandstone  and  most  kinds  of  granite  are  too 
easily  crumbled  for  use  on  roads  for  heavy  travel. 

Now,  as  to  the  mode  of  building  or  laying  a  stone  road. 
First  of  all,  we  may  build  the  road  of  broken  stones,  none  of 
which  are  over  three  inches  in  diameter,  laying  the  stone  in 
courses,  and  well  packing  it  by  rolling.  In  this  way  we  make 


ROADS. 


191 


what  is  called  a  macadam  road.  It  is  so  named  after  a  Scottish 
engineer,  John  L.  Macadam,  who  lived  from  1756  to  1836, 
and  who  originated  this  method  of  making  roads. 


Fig.  85.— A  Macadam  road. 

We  may,  however,  begin  the  road  by  laying  a  foundation  of 
flat  stones  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  thickness,  then  a  layer 
of  coarsely  broken  stone,  another  layer  or  course  of  more  finely 
broken  stone,  and  a  thin  coat  of  fine  gravel  or  screenings  on 
the  surface — all  well  compacted  by  a  heavy  roller.  This  kind 
of  road  is  called  a  Telford  road,  from  the  inventor,  Thomas 
Telford,  a  Scottish  engineer,  who  lived  from  1757  to  1834. 


Fig.  86.— A  Telford  road. 

The  legal  width  of  a  country  road  allowance  is  66  feet.  The 
usual  travel  on  such  a  road  does  not  require  more  than  24 
feet  of  this  to  be  graded  and  crowned.  In  the  centre  of  this 
graded  portion  the  metalling  (that  is,  the  broken  stone  or 
gravel)  is  placed,  having  a  width  of  6  or  8  feet  and  a  dept.li  of 
9  to  12  inches,  according  to  the  number  and  weight  of  the 
vehicles  which  will  pass  over  the  road.  As  the  country 
becomes  more  thickly  populated,  and  the  number  of  vehicles 


IQ2  AGRICULTURE. 

using  the  road  increases,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  make 
the  metalled  portion  wider  than  24  feet. 

NOTES  : — 

Broad  tires  should  be  used  on  heavy  waggons  and  carts,  as 
wheels  with  wide  tires  will  not  sink  so  readily  in  sand  and  dirt 
as  wheels  with  narrow  tires — in  fact  the  wide-tired  wheels  have 
the  same  good  effects  as  a  roller  on  the  surface  of  the  road. 

The  greatest  enemy  to  good  roads  is  water  in  the  roadbed 
and  water  on  the  surface.  Notice  how  a  small  hole  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  road  becomes  larger  soon  after  a  rain. 

The  best  time  to  mend  a  road  is  just  as  soon  as  it  needs 
mending.  "  A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine." 

The  road  surface  should  be  nicely  crowned,  so  as  to 
shed  the  water  to  the  side  ditches;  the  side  ditches  should 
be  kept  clean  and  uniform,  so  that  the  water  will  run  away 
and  not  stand  in  them ;  the  road  sides  should  be  level  and 
sloping  towards  the  ditches,  and  should  be  covered  with 
sod,  all  weeds,  stumps  and  shrubs  being  cut  out. 

The  fences  along  the  road  should  be  kept  neat  and  trim.  If 
trees  are  planted  along  the  roadside  they  should  be  far  enough 
apart  to  allow  the  sunlight  to  keep  the  road  dry. 

As  a  rule  the  roads  are  a  sure  index  of  the  intelligence, 
enterprise,  and  prosperity  of  a  farming  community.  Poor, 
cheap  roads  are  a  source  of  great  expense  to  farmers.  Good 
roads,  well-kept,  will  enable  the  farmer  to  draw  heavier  loads 
in  a  shorter  time,  cause  less  wear  and  tear  on  vehicles,  horses 
and  harness,  add  much  to  the  pleasure  and  satisfaction  of  living 
in  the  country,  and  increase  the  value  of  farm  property. 

A  good  road  brings  a  farmer  nearer  to  his  neighbors,  nearer 
to  market,  nearer  to  school,  and  nearer  to  church. 


THE   COUNTRY   HOME.  193 


CHAPTER    XL. 


THE  COUNTRY  HOME. 

A  FINE  COUNTRY  HOME. — In  the  older  countries  of  Europe 
most  families  of  even  moderate  wealth  endeavor  to  have  two 
homes  or  residences,  a  city  or  town  house  and  a  country 
house.  The  greater  pleasure,  the  more  lasting  recollections, 
are  usually  associated  with  the  latter.  When  we  clearly  under- 
stand the  nature  and  the  surroundings  of  the  rural  homes,  the 
country  seats,  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  we  do  not 
wonder  at  the  preference.  With  increased  wealth,  in  the  future 
a  similar  condition  of  affairs  may,  perhaps,  result  in  this 
country,  but  the  building  up  of  pleasant,  attractive  country 
homes  in  this  land  need  not  be  put  off  until  the  day  of 
increased  wealth  shall  make  such  possible  to  a  few.  Far  better 
will  it  be  for  this  country  if  every  farmer's  home  can  be  made 
attractive  and  comfortable.  Many  men  of  the  towns  and 
cities,  wearied  and  perplexed  with  the  driving  cares  and  the- 
never-ending  anxieties  of  their  busy  life,  look  forward  longingly 
to  a  time  when  they  can  return  to  the  country,  for  a  part  of  the 
year  at  least,  to  enjoy  the  quiet,  the  comfort,  and  the  health- 
fulness  of  a  country  home,  even  though  it  may  be  a  very 
humble  home.  The  young  people  of  to-day  will  ere  long  be 
making  homes  for  themselves ;  in  fact,  even  now  they  can  do 
something  towards  making  their  homes  more  attractive,  hence 
it  is  not  out  of  place  to  make  a  brief  study  of  what  the  ideal 
country  home  should  be.  Home  life  in  the  country,  as  in  the 
town,  is  the  most  important  factor  in  building  up  character.  A 
nation's  life  is  largely  the  combined  home  life  of  all  the  families 
that  make  up  the  nation. 


194  AGRICULTURE. 

THE  HOUSE. — The  house  depends  for  its  attractiveness  not 
upon  what  it  is  made  of — stone,  brick,  wood,  logs — but  upon 
its  form,  its  situation  and  its  surroundings.  In  deciding 
upon  the  outline  of  a  house  both  plainness  and  too  much 
variation  and  decoration  should  be  avoided.  It  should,  if 
possible,  face  towards  the  south,  to  see  the  first  of  spring  and 
the  last  of  autumn ;  it  should  be  near  enough  to  the  road  to 
bring  passing  vehicles  and  traffic  within  range,  and  yet  not 
right  on  or  against  the  road.  If  possible,  from  the  front  there 
should  be  a  pleasant  outlook  or  landscape.  It  should  stand 
on  rising  ground,  so  that  there  will  be  perfect  drainage  away 
from  it,  and  no  possibility  of  any  drainage  towards  it. 

Having  selected  a  good  site,  we  begin  with  the  house,  and, 
of  course,  start  with  the  cellar.  This  should  extend  under  the 
whole  house,  otherwise  some  of  the  rooms  may  be  damp  at 
times.  The  cellar  should  be  deep  enough  so  that  one  can 
walk  about  in  all  parts  of  it  erect ;  it  should  have  a  concrete 
floor,  and  a  well-laid  drain  from  it  to  keep  it  dry.  Have 
windows  on  all  sides,  so  that  the  whole  cellar  can  be  kept  well 
aired.  If  it  can  be  arranged,  have  a  root-cellar  apart  from  the 
house,  say  in  one  corner  of  the  garden.  All  this  means  a  little 
extra  expense,  but  damp,  musty  cellars  and  decaying  roots 
result  in  sickness,  sometimes  in  death,  and  the  cost  of  a  good 
cellar  will  be  money  well  invested. 

The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  in  the  house  is  a  matter 
largely  of  choice.  There  should  be  a  large  kitchen,  a  pantry, 
a  dining-room,  and  a  parlor  on  the  ground  floor.  There 
should  be  also  a  reading-room  or  library  or  study,  in  which 
will  be  found  the  best  agricultural  papers,  and  at  least  a  small 
collection  of  the  best  agricultural  books  and  reports.  Two 
other  things  should  be  provided  for,  namely,  one  large  bow 
window  for  house-plants  and  a  grate  for  a  log  fire.  The  sleep- 
ing rooms  may  be  on  the  second  floor,  and,  in  addition,  there 
should  be  a  store-room  and  a  bath-room.  . 


THE   COUNTRY   HOME.  195 

So  much  for  the  inside.  On  the  outside  there  should  be  a 
wide  verandah  with  comfortable  chairs.  This  will  be  found  to 
be  the  summer  living  room.  It  should  run  the  length  of  at 
least  one  side  of  the  house,  and,  if  the  style  of  the  house 
allow  and  the  outlook  be  favorable,  it  should  run  around  on  a 
second  side.  Both  sides  will  be  used  in  different  kinds  of 
weather.  Around  the  supports  of  the  verandah  there  can  be 
twined  a  climbing  plant,  Virginia  creeper  or  ivy  or  honey- 
suckle or  clematis  or  climbing  rose. 

THE  SURROUNDINGS  OF  THE  HOUSE. — Two  great  essentials 
to  health  are  pure  air  and  sunlight ;  therefore,  have  plenty  of 
windows,  and  keep  all  trees  far  enough  away  so  that  the 
windows  will  not  be  darkened.  You  wish  a  fine  outlook  from 
your  verandah,  therefore  do  not  plant  trees  to  hide  the  view. 
You  should,  or  may  have,  a  few  trees  along  the  main  road  and 
on  either  side  of  the  winding  driveway  from  the  entrance-gate, 
but  keep  the  front  well  open,  so  as  to  let  in  the  fresh  air  and 
the  sunlight,  and  so  as  to  allow  you  to  see  out  and  away  over 
the  country.  In  the  rear  have  a  clump  of  spruce,  to  act  as  a 
wind-break  against  the  cold  north  and  north-west  winds.  On 
the  side  you  may  have  a  neatly-trimmed  hedge  of  cedar,  and 
here  and  there  you  may  have  a  native  shrub,  but  between  your 
house  and  the  road  have  a  sloping  lawn  of  green  grass,  clear 
of  weeds,  and  well-trimmed.  If  the  lawn  is  large  enough  you 
might  have  one  or  two  shapely  maples,  but  do  not  crowd  out 
the  grass  or  obstruct  the  view.  And  the  flowers?  On  the 
side  rather  than  in  front,  but  choice  and  taste  will  settle  where 
they  are  to  go.  Perhaps  you  can  make  a  simple  plan  or  sketch 
of  a  home  such  as  we  have  briefly  outlined.  You  will  find 
that  you  will  have  to  alter  it  to  suit  the  general  situation  and 
lay-out  of  your  farm,  but,  keeping  in  mind  these  simple 
principles  as  a  guide,  you  can,  if  you  will,  make  in  time  an 
ideal  country  home,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  of 
any  country. 


AGRICULTURE. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER  : 

Are  not  the  surroundings  of  the  average  country  school  bare  and 
cheerless?  (Fig.  88).  May  they  not  be  improved  by  the  planting  of 
such  native  shrubs  and  flowers  as  might  be  picked  up  in  a  half- 
day's  outing  with  the  boys  and  girls?  (Fig.  89).  In  this  connection 
the  teacher  will  do  well  to  consult  "  Hints  on  Rural  School 
Grounds,"  Bulletin  No.  160,  Cornell  University  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, from  which  the  accompanying  cuts  are  taken. 


Fig.  87. — A  "corner"  schoolhouse  and  how  the  grounds  may  be  arranged. 


THE    COUNTRY    HOME. 


I97 


Fig.  88. — A  country  schoolhouse. 


Fig.  8q.— How  it  might  be  improved  by  adding  M>mc  trees  and  shru 


Fig.  8q.— How  it  might  be  improved  by  adding  M>mc  trees  and  shrubs.  (From  Bulle- 
tin, College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  entitled  "  Hints  on  the  Planting  of 
Shrubbery,"  Kigs.  21  and  11.) 


198 


AGRICULTURE. 


The  leading  thought  in  planting  home  grounds,  but 
particularly  school  grounds,  is  to  have  a  setting  of  green- 
sward for  the  central  figure — the  building — and  then  to 
frame  this  with  an  irregular  border  of  trees,  shrubs,  and 
flowers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90. 


Fig.  90.— A  picture,  of  which  a  schoolhouse  is  the  central  figure. 


The  border  can  always  be  added  to  or  taken  from  with- 
out disturbing  the  arrangement.  A  hill  of  corn  or  a  canna 
root  may  be  inserted  in  the  background  with  pleasing 
effect,  while  the  foreground  may  be  used  for  annual 
flowers. 


TREES    AND    SHRUBS.  199 


APPENDIX. 


TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 

There  are  special  botanical  names  for  all  trees  and  shrubs, 
just  as  there  are  for  other  plants,  such  as  grasses  and  weeds. 
In  the  following  table  the  scientific  or  botanical  name  is  put 
in  one  column  and  the  common  name  in  the  other.  In  every 
case  two  words  are  used— the  first  being  a  noun  and  the 
second  an  adjective;  as  picea,  meaning  "spruce,"  and  albay 
meaning  "white."  In  the  same  way,  que>cus  meaning  "  oak," 
quercus  alba  is  the  botanical  name  of  "white  oak,"  and 
quercus  rubra  "red  oak." 

Abies  balsamifera Balsam  fir. 

Acer  dasycarpum   Silver  maple.  [box  elder. 

Acer  negundo Ash-leaved  or  Manitoba  maple  or 

Acer  Pennsylvanicum Striped  maple  or  moose  wood. 

Acer  rubrum Red  or  soft  maple. 

Acer  saccharinum Sugar  or  rock  maple 

Ater  spicatum Mountain  maple. 

Aesculus  hippocastamtm Horse  chestnut. 

Betula  lutea Yellow  birchj- 

Betula  lenta Black  or  cherry  or  sweet  birch. 

Betula  nigra Red  birch. 

Betula  papyrifera Canoe  or  paper  birch. 

Betula  populifolia White  or  grey  birch. 

Carpinus  Americana Hornbeam  or  blue  beech. 

Carya  alba Shellbark  hickory. 

Carya  amara Bitter  hickory. 

Carya  microcarpa Small  fruit  hickory. 

Carya  porcina     Pignut. 

Carya  tomentosa White-heart  hickory. 

Castanea  saliva ...   Chestnut. 

Fagus  sylvatica European  beech. 


200  AGRICULTURE. 

Fagus  ferug.  nea    American  beech. 

Fraxinus  Americana White  ash. 

Fraxinus  pubescens   Red  ash. 

Fraxinus  sambucifolia Black  ash. 

Gyinnocladus  Canadensis Coffee  tree. 

Juglans  cinerea Butternut. 

Juglans  nigra Black  walnut. 

Junipcrus  Virginiana Red  cedar. 

Larix  Americana Tamarack  or  American  larch. 

Li'-iodendron  tulipifera Tulip  tree. 

Oitrya  Virginica Iron  wood  or  hop  hornbeam. 

Picea  alba White  spruce. 

Picea  excelsa Norway  spruce. 

Picea  nigra Black  spruce. 

Pinus  Banksiana Cypress  or  jack  pine. 

Finns  mitis Yellow  pine. 

Pinus  resinosa    Red  or  Norway  pine. 

Pinus  strobus White  or  Weymouth  pine. 

Platanus  occidentalis Buttonwood  or  sycamore. 

Populus  balsamifera Balsam  poplar  or  Balm  of  Gilead. 

Populus grandidentata Large  toothed  aspen.  [poplar. 

Populus  tremuloides American  aspen  or  trembling-leaf 

Quercus  alba White  oak. 

Quercus  coccinea Scarlet  oak. 

Quercus  prinus  ....    Rock  chestnut  oak. 

Quercus  rubra Red  oak. 

Quercus  stellata Post  oak. 

Quercus  tinctoria  Quercitron  oak. 

Quercus  macrocarpa Bur  oak. 

Salix  alba White  willow. 

Salix  vitellina Yellow  willow. 

Sorbus  Americana Mountain  ash. 

Thuja  occidentalis Arbor-vitse  or  white  cedar. 

Tsuga  Canadensis Hemlock. 

7'ilia  Americana Basswood  or  linden. 

Ulmus  Americana American  elm. 

Ulmus  fulva Red  or  slippery  elm. 

Ulmus  racemosa Cork  or  rock  elm. 

Ulmus  cainpestris European  elm. 


WEEDS. 


201 


WEEDS. 

NOTE. — A  is  for  annual,  B  for  biennial,  and  P  for  perennia'. 


COMMON  NAME. 

FAMILY  OR 
ORDER. 

SCIENTIFIC  NAME. 

Buttercup P  Ranunculaceee  . 

Cursed  Buttercup.  .A 
Tall  Meadow  rue..  .P 

False  Flax A|Crucifene 

Shepherd's  purse  .  .A 

Pepperwort A 

Pennycress A 

Wild  mustard A 

Worm  seed  "      ....  A 

St.  John's  wort P  Hypericaceae  .. . 

Cora  Cockle  A  Caryophyllaceac 

Bladder  Campion . .  P 
Field  Chick  weed..  .P 

Bouncing  Bet P 

Chickweed A 

Purslane A 

Mallow P 

Indian  Mallow A 

Poison  Sumach P  Anacardiaceae . . 

Poison  Ivy P 

Climbing  Ivy P 


Rabbit-foot  clover.. A 


Wild  Tare P 

Black  Medick A 

Sweet  clover A 

Wild  Carrot B  Umbelliferae 

Poison  Hemlock . .  .  B 

Wild  Parsnip B 

Evening  Primrose.  .B  Onagraceae. 
Willow  herb.  .       ..P 


Teasel. 


B 


Groundsel  A 

Ragweed A 

Ox-eye  Daisy P 

Yarrow P 

Tansy P 

Golden  Rod P 

Cone-Flower B 

Sow  Thistle A 

Corn  Thistle  P 

Fireweed A 

Burdock B 

14 


Portulacaceae 
Malvaceae. . , 


Leguminosse . . . 


Dipsaceae  . . 
Composite. 


Ranunculus  acris. 
Ranunculus  sceleratus. 
Thalictrum  polygamum. 
Camelina  saliva. 
Capsella  Bursa-pastoris. 
Lepidium  Virginicutn. 
Thlaspi  arvense. 
Brassica  Sinapistrum. 
Erysimum  cheiranthoides. 
Hypericum  perforatum. 
Lychnis  Githago. 
Silene  inflata. 
Cerastium  arvense. 
Saponaria  officinalis. 
Stellaria  media. 
Portulaca  oleracea. 
Malva  rotundifolia. 
Abutilon  avicennse. 
Rhus  venenata. 
Rims  toxicodendron. 
Rhus  radicans. 
Trifolium  arvense. 
Vicia  Cracca. 
Medicago  lupulina. 
Melilotus  alba. 
Daucus  carota. 
Conium  maculatum. 
Pastinaca  sativa. 
OKnothera  biennis. 
Epilobium  angustifolium. 
Dipsacus  sylvestris. 
Senecio  vulgaris. 
Ambrosia  artemisiaefolia. 
Leucanthemum  vulgare 
Achillrea  millefolium. 
Tanacetum  vulgare. 
Solidago  Canadensis. 
Rudbeckia  hirta. 
Sonchus  oleraceus. 
Sonchtis  arvensis. 
Krechthitis  hieracifolia. 
Arclium  Lappa. 


AGRICULTURE. 


COMMON  NAME. 

FAMILY  OR 
ORDER. 

SCIENTIFIC  NAME. 

Chicory  P 

Composite  

Cichorium  Intybus. 

Dandelion  P 

Taraxacum  officinale. 

Fleabane   A 

it 

Erigeron  Canadense. 

Mayweed  A 

« 

Anthemis  Cotula. 

Canada  Thistle  .  .  .   P 

« 

Cnicus  arvensis. 

Bull  Thistle  B 

ii 

Cnicus  lanceolatus. 

Bur  Marigold  ...       P 

ii 

Bidens  frondosa. 

Elecampane  .  .          P 

<  i 

Inula  Helenium 

Clot-bur  '  A 

ii 

Xanthium  Canadense 

Mullein  B 

Scrophulariaceae 

Verbascum  Thapsus 

N  eckweed  A 

Veronica  peregrina. 

Toad  Flax  P 

« 

Linaria  vulgaris. 

Vervain  P 

Verbenacese  . 

Verbena  hastata. 

White  Vervain  P 

Verbena  urticifolia. 

Motherwort      ....   P 

Labiatae  

Leonurus  Cardiaca 

Catnip  P 

Nepeta  Cataria. 

Self  Heal  P 

ii 

Brunella  vulgaris 

Stickseed  B 

Borroginaceae  .  .  . 

Echinospermum  Lappula. 

Hound's  Tongue.  .  .B 
Blueweed  B 

Cynoglossum  officinale. 
Echium  vulgare. 

Pigeonweed  A 

ii 

Lithospermum  arvense. 

Thorn-Apple  A 

Solanaceae  

Datura  Stramonium. 

Bindweed  P 

Convolvulaceae  .  . 

Convolvulus  arvensis. 

Dodder  A 

Cuscuta  trifolii. 

Milkweed  P 

Asclepiadacese  .  . 

Asclepias  Cornnti. 

Plantain  P 

Plantaginaceas  .  . 

Plantago  major. 

Rib-grass  P 

Plantago  lanceolata. 

Lamb's  Quarters.  .  .A 
Strawberry  Elite  ...  A 
Russian  Thistle  A 
Pigweed  ....            A 

Chenopodiacese 
Amarantaceae 

Chenopodium  album. 
Chenopodium  capitatum. 
Salsola  kali 
Amarantus  retroflexus. 

Goosegrass  A 

Polygonaceae.  . 

Polygonum  aviculare. 

Black  Bindweed  ...  A 
Lady's  Thumb  A 
Sorrel  P 

ii 

ii 

Polygonum  Convolvulus. 
Polygonum  Persicaria. 
Rumex  Acetosella. 

Common  Dock  .  .  .  .  P 
Bittei  Dock  P 

"           .... 

R.umex  crispus. 
Rumex  obtusifolins. 

Smartweed  A 

ii 

Polygonum  hydropiper. 

Nettle  P 

Urticaceae  

Urtica  gracilis. 

Wild  Leek  P 

Liliacese  

Allium  tricoceum. 

Chess  A 

Gramineae  

Bromus  secalinus. 

Foxtail  A 

Betaria  viridis. 

Barnyard  Grass        A 

Panicum  Crus-galli. 

Witch  Grass  A 

Panicum  capillare. 

Wild  Oat  A 

A  vena  fatua. 

Couch  Grass.  .       .  .P 

Aerropyrum  repens. 

SPRAYING    MIXTURES.  203 

SPRAYING  MIXTURES. 

The  spraying  of  trees  and  bushes  is  done  mainly  for  three  purposes : 
I,  to  pievent  and  destroy  the  leaf-eating  insects  ;  2,  to  prevent  and 
destroy  sucking  insects ;  3,  to  prevent  and  destroy  the  germs  of  plant 
diseases.  Poisons  such  as  Paris  Green  (which  is  a  compound  of  arsenic) 
are  used  for  the  first,  kerosene  (coal  oil)  emulsion  for  the  second,  and 
copper  sulphate  for  the  third.  As  a  rule  the  first  and  third  are  combined. 

BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. 

Copper  sulphate  (or  bluestone) 4  pounds. 

Lime  (fresh) 4        '• 

Water 40  gallons. 

Place  the  copper  sulphate  in  a  coarse  hag  and  hang  it  in  5  gallons  o' 
water.  Slake  the  !-me  in  5  gallons  of  wa'er.  Then  mix  the  two  and  add 
the  other  30  gallons  of  water.  Use  only  wooHen  vessels.  Pans  Green 
solution  is  made  byotirring  up  I  pound  of  Paris  Green  in  200  to  300  gallons 
of  water  (200  for  apple  trees,  250  for  plums,  and  300  lor  peacnes),  adJ 
about  4  gallons  of  milk  of  lime. 

When  the  Paris  Green  and  Bordeaux  mixture  are  to  be  used  together  to 
check  the  insects  and  disease  at  the  same  time,  make  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  as  above  stated  and  add  4  oz.  of  Paris  Green  to  ihe  40  gallons  of 
Bordeaux  mixture. 

KEROSENE  EMULSION. 

Hard  soap }4  pound,  or  soft  soap,     I  quart. 

Boiling  water  (soft) .    j  gallon. 

Coal  oil 2  gallons. 

After  dissolving  the  soap  in  the  water,  add  the  coal  oil  and  stir  well  for 
5  to  10  minutes.  When  properly  mixed,  it  will  adhere  to  glass  without 
oiliness.  A  syringe  or  pump  will  aid  much  in  this  %voik.  In  using,  dilute 
with  from  9  to  15  parts  of  water.  Kerosene  emulsion  miy  be  prepared 
with  sour  milk  (i  gillon)  and  coal  oil  (2  gallons),  no  soap  being  required. 
This  latter  will  not  keep  long. 


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(J~HE    STORY    OF    "PRIMITIVE"    MAN.      By  EDWARD 
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INSECT  LIFE.     By  JOHN  HENRY  COMSTOCK,  Pro- 

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The  work  is  very  free  from  technicalities,  and  is  so  plainly  told  as  to  be  easily  under- 
stood  by  every  intellectual  reader."  —  Chicago  tnUr-Oitan, 


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r)IRD-LIFE.     A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  our  Common 
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ogy and  Ornithology,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  ; 
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LTANDSOOK  OF  BIRDS  OF  EASTERN 
*  1  NORTH  AMERICA.  With  Keys  to  the  Species  ;  Descrip- 
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and  so  convenient  and  full  of  original  information  as  to  be  indispensable  to  the  working 

ornithologist As  a  handbook  of  the  birds  of  eastern  North  America  it  is  bound  to 

supersede  all  other  works.'  —Science. 

"  The  author  has  succeeded  in  presenting  to  the  reader  clearly  and  vividly  a  vast 
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AM  I  LIAR   LIFE  IN  FIELD  AND  FOREST. 
By  F.  SCHUYLER  MATHEWS.     Uniform  with  "  Familiar  Flow- 
ers," "  Familiar  Trees,"  and  "  Familiar  Features  of  the  Road- 
side."    With  many  Illustrations.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 
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birds  commonly  met  with  in  the  country.     His  book  will  be  found  a  most 
convenient  and  interesting  guide  to  an  acquaintance  with  common  wild 
creatures. 

AM  1  'LIAR  FEA  TURES  OF  THE  ROADSIDE. 

By  F.  SCHUYLER  MATHEWS,  author  of  "  Familiar  Flowers  of 
Field  and  Garden,"  "  Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves,"  etc. 
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taken  in  the  details  of  what  charms  us  ?  We  see  the  flowering  fields  and  budding  woods, 
listen  to  the  notes  of  birds  and  froi*s,  the  hum  of  some  big  bumblebee,  but  how  much  do 
we  knnw  of  what  we  sense  ?  These  questions,  these  doubts  have  occurreil  to  all  of  us, 
and  it  is  to  answer  them  that  Mr.  Mathews  sets  forth.  It  is  to  his  credit  that  he  suc- 
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we  meet  on  our  highway  and  byway  travels,  tel  s  u*  how  to  recognize  them,  what  they 
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AM  I  LIAR  TREES  AND  THEIR  LEAVES. 
By  F.  SCHUYLER  MATHEWS,  author  of  "  Familiar  Flowers  of 
Field  and  Garden,"  "The  Beautiful  Flower  Garden,"  etc. 
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I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 

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long  time,  it  is  written  in  a  popular  and  attractive  stylo,  it  is  accurately  and  prof\ir-cly 
illustrated,  and  it  is  by  an  authority  on  tlie  s>ubject  of  which  it  treats."  —  I'ublic  l>finion. 

PAMILIAR  FLOWERS  OF  FIELD  AND 

•*•  GARDEN.  By  F.  SCHUYLER  MATHEWS.  Illustrated  with 
200  Drawings  by  the  Author.  I2mo.  Library  Edition,  cloth, 
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:HE  GARDEN'S  STORY;  or,  Pleasures  and 
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trained  cultivator  in  that  his  skill  in  garden  practice  is  guided  by  a  refined  aesthetic 
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catholic.  His  record  of  the  garden  year,  as  we  have  said,  begins  witn  the  earliest 
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ORIGIN    OF    CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 
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of  history,  and  of  philosophy  is  required.  By  a  combination  of  testimony  derived  fiom 
thes"e  sources  M.  de  Candolle  has  been  enabled  to  determine  the  botanical  origin  and 
geographical  source  of  the  large  proportion  of  species  he  deals  with." — The  A  thtna-utit. 


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'HE  FOLK-LORE  OF  PLANTS.    By  T.  F.  THIS- 
ELTON  DYER,  M.  A.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

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F 


LOWERS    AND     THEIR    PEDIGREES.       By 

GRANT  AI.LFN,  author  of  "Vignettes  of  Nature,"  etc.      Illus- 
trated.    I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

"  No  writer  treats  scientific  subjects  with  so  much  ease  and  charm  of  style  as  Mr. 
Grant  Allen.  The  study  is  a  delightful  one,  and  the  book  is  fascinating  to  any  one 
who  has  either  love  for  flowers  or  curiosity  about  them." — Hartjord  Courant. 

"  Any  one  with  even  a  smatteri  ig  of  botanical  knowledge,  and  with  either  a  heart 
or  mind,  must  be  charmed  with  this  collection  of  essays." — Chicago  Evening  Journal. 

rj^HE   GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY  OF  PLANTS, 
J-         By  Sir  J.   WILLIAM   DAWSON,  F.  R.  S.       Illustrated.       i2mo. 
Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  The  object  of  this  work  is  to  give,  in  a  connected  form,  a  summary  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  vegetable  kingdom  in  geological  time.  To  the  geologist  ard  botanist  the 
subject  is  one  of  importance  with  reference  to  their  special  pursuits,  ard  one  on  w  hich 
it  has  not  been  easy  to  find  any  convenient  manual  of  information.  It  is  hoped  that  its 
treatment  in  the  present  volume  will  also  be  found  sufficiently  simple  and  popular  to  be 
attractive  to  the  general  reader." — From  the  Preface. 

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U TINGS  AT  ODD  TIMES.  By  CHARLES  C. 
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companion  and  friend." — Rochester  Union  and  Advertiser. 

NA  TURALIST  'S  RAMBLES  ABO  UT  HOME. 
By  CHARLES  C.  ABBOTT,     tamo.    Cloth,  $1.50. 

"The  home  about  which  Dr.  Abbott  rambles  is  clearly  the  haunt  of  fowl  and  fish, 
of  animal  and  insect  life ;  and  it  is  of  the  habits  and  nature  of  these  that  he  discourses 
pleasantly  in  this  book.  Summer  and  winter,  morning  and  evening,  he  has  been  in 
th;  open  air  all  the  time  on  the  alert  for  some  new  revelation  of  instinct,  or  feeling, 
or  character  on  the  part  of  his  neighbor  creatures.  Most  that  he  sees  and  hears  he 
r:poris  agreeably  to  us,  as  it  was  no  doubt  delightful  to  himself.  Books  like  this, 
which  are  free  from  all  the  technicalit  es  of  science,  but  yet  lack  little  that  has  scien- 
tific value,  are  well  suited  to  the  reading  of  the  young.  Their  atmosphere  is  a  healthy 
o  ie  for  boys  in  particular  to  breathe." — Boston  Transcript. 

A  YS  OUT  OF  DOORS.  By  CHARLES  C.  ABBOTT- 
I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.50. 

" '  Da_ys  out  of  Doors '  is  a  series  of  sketches  of  animal  life  by  Charles  C  Abbott, 
a  naturalist  whose  graceful  writings  have  entertained  and  instructed  the  public  before 
now.  The  essays  and  narratives  in  this  book  are  grouped  in  twelve  chapters,  named 
after  the  months  of  the  year.  Under  'January'  the  author  talks  of  squirrels,  musk- 
nts.  water-snakes,  and  the  predatory  animals  that  withstand  the  rigor  of  winter; 
un  ler  '  February'  of  fro^s  and  herons,  crows  and  blackbirds;  under  '  March  '  of  gulls 
and  fishes  and  foxy  sparrows:  and  so  on  appropriately,  instructively,  and  divertingly 
t  irouih  the  whole  twelve  " — .\fw  York  Sun. 


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"HE  PLAYTIME  NATURALIST.  By  Dr.  J.  E. 
TAYLOR,  F.  L.  S.,  editor  of  "  Science  Gossip."  With  366  Illus- 
trations. I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.50. 

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and  any  boy  who  may  read  it  carefully  is  sure  to  find  something  to  attract  him.  Tlie 
style  is  clear  and  lively,  and  there  are  many  good  illustrations."  —  Nature. 


T 


ORIGIN    OF    FLORAL    STRUCTURES 

through  Insects  and  other  Agencies.  By  the  Rev.  GEORGE 
HMNSI.OW,  Professor  of  Botany,  Queen's  College.  With  nu- 
merous Illustrations.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 

"Much  has  been  written  on  the  structure  of  flowers,  and  it  might  seem  almost 
superfluous  to  attempt  to  say  anything  more  on  the  subject,  but  it  is  only  within  the 
last  few  years  that  a  new  literature  has  sprung  up,  in  which  the  authors  have  described 
their  observations  and  given  their  interpretations  of  the  uses  of  floral  mechanism»,  more 
especially  in  connection  with  the  processes  of  fertilization."  —  From  lntrM/nctwH. 


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HE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  SELBORNE, 
AND  OBSERVATIONS  ON  NATUKE.  By  GILBERT 
WHITE.  With  an  Introduction  by  John  Burroughs,  80  Illus- 
trations by  Clifton  Johnson,  and  the  Text  and  New  Letters  of 
the  Buckland  edition.  In  two  volumes.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $4.00. 

"  White  himself,  were  he  alive  to-day,  would  join  all  his  loving  readers  in  thanking 
the  American  publishers  for  a  thoroughly  excellent  presentation  of  his  famous  book. 
.  .  .  This  latest  edition  of  White's  book  must  go  into  all  of  our  libraries;  our  young 
people  must  have  it  at  hand,  and  our  trained  lovers  of  select  literature  must  take  it  into 
their  home*:.  By  such  reading  we  keep  knowledge  in  proper  perspective  and  are  able 
to  grasp  the  proportions  of  discovery." — Maurice  Thompson,  in  the  Independent. 

"  White's  '  Selborne '  belongs  in  the  same  category  as  Walton's  '  Complete  Angler'  ; 
.  .  .  here  they  are,  the 'Complete  Angler' well  along  in  its  third  century,  and  the  other 
just  started  in  its  second  century,  both  of  them  as  highly  esteemed  as  they  were  when 
first  published,  both  bound  to  live  forever,  if  we  may  trust  the  predictions  of  their  re- 
spective admirers.  John  Burroughs,  in  his  charming  introduction,  tells  us  why  White's 
book  has  lasted  and  why  this  new  and  beautiful  edition  has  been  printed.  .  .  .  This  new 
edition  of  his  work  comes  to  us  beautifully  illustrated  by  Clifton  Johnson." — New  York 
'1  Hut's. 

"  White's  '  Selborne '  has  been  reprinted  many  times,  in  many  forms,  but  never  be- 
fore, so  far  as  we  can  remember,  in  so  creditable  a  form  as  it  assumes  in  these  two 
volumes,  nor  with  drawings  comparable  to  those  which  Mr.  Clifton  Johnson  has  made 
for  them." — New  York  Mail  and  Express. 

"  We  are  loath  to  put  down  the  two  handsome  volumes  in  which  the  source  of  such 
a  gift  as  this  has  been  republished.  1'he  type  is  so  clear,  the  paper  is  so  pleasant  to 
the  touch,  the  weight  of  each  volume  is  so  nicely  adapted  to  the  hand,  and  one  turns 


"Not  only  for  the  significance  they  lend  to  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  English 
literature,  but  as  a  revelation  of  English  rural  life  and  scenes,  are  these  pictures  de- 
lightfully welcome.  The  edition  is  in  every  way  creditable  to  the  publishers." — 
Boston  Beacon. 

"  Rural  England  has  many  attractions  for  the  lover  of  Nature,  and  no  work,  per- 
haps, has  done  its  charms  greater  justice  than  Gilbert  White's  '  Natural  History  of 
Selborne.'  " — Boston  Journal. 

"This  charming  edition  leaves  really  nothing  to  be  desired." — Wtstminster 
Gazette. 

"  This  edition  is  beautifully  illustrated  and  bound,  and  deserves  to  be  welcomed  by 
all  naturalists  and  Nature  lovers." — London  Daily  Chronicle. 

"  Handsome  and  desirable  in  every  respect.  .  .  .  Welcome  to  old  and  young." — 
Ntw  York  Herald. 

"  The  charm  of  White's  '  Selborne '  is  not  d.  finable  But  there  is  no  other  book  of 
the  past  generations  that  will  ever  take  the  place  with  the  field  naturalists." — Balti- 
more Sun. 


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GEORGE    H.  ELLWANGER'S   BOOKS. 

GARDEN'S  STORY;  or,  Pleasures  and  Trials 
of  an  Amateur  Gardener.  \Vith  Head  and  Tail  Pieces  by 
Rhead.  i6mo.  Clolh,  extra,  $1.50. 

"This  dainty  nugget  of  horticultural  lore  treats  of  the  pleasuies  and  trials  of  an 
amateur  gardener.  Krom  the  time  when  daffodils  begin  to  peer  and  the  'secret  of  the 
year'  comes  in  to  mid-October,  Mr.  Kllwanger  provides  an  outline  of  hardy  flower- 
gardening  that  can  be  carried  on  and  worked  upon  by  amateurs.  ...  A  little  chapter 
on  '  Warm  Weather  Wisdom"  is  a  presentment  of  the  cream  of  English  literature. 
Nor  is  the  information  of  this  floial  calendar  confined  to  the  literary  or  theoretical 
sides.  '  Plant  thickly  ;  it  is  easier  and  more  profitable  to  rai>t-  flowers  than  weeds,'  is  a 
practical  direction  from  the  garden  syllabus."  —  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

"One  of  the  most  charming  books  of  the  season.  .  .  .  Thus  little  volume,  printed 
in  excellent  taste,  is  redolent  of  garden  fragrance  and  garden  wisdom.  .  .  .  It  is  in  no 
sense  a  text-book,  but  it  combines  a  vast  deal  of  information  with  a  great  deal  of  out- 
of-door  observation,  and  exceedingly  pleasant  and  sympathetic  writing  about  flowers 
and  plants."  —  Christian  Union. 

"  A  dainty,  learned,  charming,  and  delightful  book."  —  Neva  York  Sun. 


*T^HE  STORY  OF  MY  HOUSE.     With  an  Etched 

•*•         Frontispiece  by  Sidney  L.  Smith,  and  numerous  Head  and  Tail 
Pieces  by  W.  C.  Greenough.     i6mo.     Cloth,  extra,  $1.50. 

"An  essay  on  the  building  of  a  house,  with  all  its  kaleidoscopic  possibilities  in  the 
way  of  reform,  and  its  tantalizing  successes  before  the  fact,  is  always  interesting  :  and 
ihe  author  is  not  niggardly  in  the  go  d  points  he  means  10  secure.  It  is  but  natuial  to 
follow  these  with  a  treatise  on  rugs  full  of  Orientalism  and  enthusiasm  ;  on  the  literary 
den  and  the  caller,  welcome  or  otherwise  ;  on  the  cabinets  of  porcflain,  the  rare  edi- 
tions on  the  shelves,  the  briefly  indicated  details  of  the  spoils  of  the  chase  in  their 
proper  place;  on  the  greenhouse,  with  its  curious  climate  and  wonderful  botany  and 
odors,  about  which  the  author  writes  with  unusual  charm  and  precision  ;  on  the  dining- 
room  and  the  dinner.  .  .  .  The  book  aims  only  to  be  agreeable  ;  its  literary  flavor  is 
pervasive,  its  sentiment  kept  well  in  hand."  —  Neva  York  Evening  Post. 

"  When  the  really  perfect  book  of  its  class  comes  to  a  critic's  rands,  all  the  words 
he  has  used  to  describe  fairly  satisfactory  ones  are  inadequate  for  his  new  purpose,  and 
he  feels  inclined,  as  in  this  case,  to  stand  aside  and  let  the  book  speak  for  itself.  Injts 
own  way,  it  would  be  hardly  possible  for  this  daintily  printed  volume  to  do  better."— 
Art  A  mattur. 

N  GOLD  AND  SILVER.  With  Illustrations  by 
W.  Hamilton  Gibson,  A.  B.  Wenzell,  and  W.  C.  Greenough. 
i6mo.  Cloth,  $2.00.  Also,  limited  Edition  de  luxe,  on  Japanese 
vellum,  $5.00. 

CONTENTS  :  The  Golden  Rug  of  Kermanshah  ;  Warders  of  the  Woods  ; 
A  Shadow  upon  the  Pool  ;  The  Silver  Fox  of  Hunt's  Hollow. 

"After  spending  a  half  hour  with  'In  Gold  and  Silver,'  one  recalls  the  old  saying. 
'Precious  things  come  in  small  parcels.'  "  —  Christian  Intelligencer. 

"One  of  the  handsomest  gift-books  of  the  yew."—  Philadelphia  Inquirer. 

"The  whole  book  is  eminently  interesting,  and  emphatic  ally  deserving  ot  the  very 
handsome  and  artistic  setting  it  has  received."  —  \'fiv  Ytirn  Tribune. 

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HE  FARMER'S  BOY.      By  CLIFTON   JOHNSON, 

author  of  "  The  Country  School  in  New  England,"  etc.     With 
64  Illustrations  by  the  Author.     8vo.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

"  One  of  the  handsomest  and  most  elaborate  juvenile  works  lately  published." — 
Philadelphia  Item. 

"  Mr.  Johnson's  style  is  almost  rhythmical,  and  one  lays  down  the  book  with  the 
sensation  of  having  read  a  poem  and  that  saddest  of  all  longings,  the  longing  for 
vanished  youth." — Bostnn  Commercial  Bulletin. 

"As  a  triumph  of  the  realistic  photographer's  art  it  deserves  warm  praise  quite 
aside  from  its  worth  as  a  sterling  book  on  the  subjects  its  title  indicates.  ...  It  is  a 
most  praiseworthy  book,  and  the  more  such  that  are  published  the  better." — New  York 
Mail  ana  Express. 

"  The  book  is  beautiful  and  amusing,  well  studied,  well  written,  redolent  of  the 
wood,  the  field,  and  the  stream,  and  full  of  those  delightful  reminders  of  a  boy's 
country  home  which  touch  the  heart." — New  1'ot'Jt  Independent. 

"One  of  the  finest  books  of  the  kind  that  have  ever  been  put  out." — Cleveland 
World. 

"  A  book  on  whose  pages  many  a  gray-haired  man  would  dwell  with  retrospective 
enjoyment." — St.  Paul  Pioneer  Press. 

"The  illustrations  are  admirable,  and  the  book  will  appeal  to  every  one  who  has 
had  a  taste  of  life  on  a  New  England  farm." — Boston  Transcript. 


T 


'HE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  IN  NEW  ENG- 
LAND. By  CLIFTON  JOHNSON.  With  60  Illustrations  from 
Photographs  and  Drawings  made  by  the  Author.  Square  8vo. 
Cloth,  gilt  edges,  $2.50. 

"  An  admirable  undertaking,  carried  out  in  an  admirable  way.  .  .  .  Mr.  Johnson's 
descriptions  are  vivid  and  lifelike  and  are  full  of  humor,  and  the  illustrations,  mostly 
after  photographs,  give  a  solid  effect  of  realism  to  the  wliole  work,  and  are  superbly 
reproduced.  .  .  .  The  definitions  at  the  close  of  this  volume  are  very,  very  funny,  and 
yet  they  are  not  stupid  ;  they  are  usually  the  result  of  deficient  logic." — Boston  Beacon. 

"  A  charmingly  written  account  of  the  rural  schools  in  this  section  of  the  country. 
It  speaks  of  the  old-fashioned  school  days  of  the  early  quarter  of  this  century,  of  the 
mid-century  schools,  of  the  country  school  of  to-day,  and  of  how  scholars  think  and 
write.  The  style  is  animated  and  picturesque.  .  .  .  It  is  handsomely  printed,  and  is 
interesting  from  its  pretty  cover  to  its  very  last  page." — Boston  Saturday  Evening 
Gazette. 

"A  unique  piece  of  book-making  that  deserves  to  be  popular.  .  .  .  Prettily  and 
serviceably  bound,  and  well  illustrated." — The  Churchman. 

"  The  readers  who  turn  the  leaves  of  this  handsome  book  will  unite  in  saying  the 
author  has  'been  there.'  It  is  no  fancy  sketch,  but  text  and  illustrations  are  both  a 
reality. " — Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

"  No  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  little  red  schoolhouse  can  look  at  these  pictures 
and  read  these  chapters  without  having  the  mind  recall  the  boyhood  experiences,  and 
the  memory  is  pretty  sure  to  be  a  pleasant  one." — Chicago  Times. 

"  A  superbly  prepared  volume,  which  by  its  reading  matter  and  its  beautiful  illustra- 
tions, so  natural  and  finished,  pleasantly  and  profitably  recalls  memories  and  associations 
connected  with  the  very  foundations  of  our  national  greatness." — N.  Y.  Observer. 


New  York  :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,   72  Fifth  Avenue. 


D.   APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

/N  THE  TRACK  OF  THE  SUN:  Readings  from 
the  Diary  of  a  Globe  Trotter.  By  FREDERICK  DIODATI 
THOMPSON.  Profusely  illustrated  with  Engravings  from  Pho- 
tographs and  from  Drawings  by  Harry  Fenn.  Large  8vo.  Cloth, 
gilt  top,  $6.co. 

"  In  very  gorgeous  holiday  attire  comes  this  large  octavo  volume,  with  its  sumptu- 
ous full  page  illustrations  and  its  profusion  of  head  and  tail  pieces.  .  .  .  The  author's 
style  is  pleasant  and  easy,  occasionally  almost  conversational,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
follow  him  through  the  intricacies  of  his  tour  without  acquiring  a  deal  of  information 
by  the  way." — Philadelpnia  Bulletin. 

"One  of  the  handsomest  of  this  year's  Christmas  books.  .  .  .  The  author  has 
practically  abandoned  the  grand  tour  in  favor  of  regions  less  known.  I  here  is  not 
much  of  Kur.ipe  in  the  volume,  but  a  great  deal  about  China,  Japan,  and  the  Fast.  In 
this  good  judgment  is  shown.  ...  A  truly  elegant  piece  of  bookmaking." — Phila- 
delphia Telegraph. 

"  Mr.  Thompson  is  an  intelligent  observer,  who  describes  what  he  has  seen  with 
humor  and  point.  .  .  .  We  know  of  no  equally  convenient  and  handsome  publication 
illustrating  a  journey  round  the  world." — The  Outlook. 

"  Few  '  globe  trotters  '  have  {nven  their  impressions  of  travel  so  comely  a  form  as 
Mr.  Thompson  in  this  handsome  illustrated  volume." — Leaden  Saturday  Review. 

"As  a  piece  of  fine  printing,  binding,  and  illustration,  Mr.  Thompson's  volume  de- 
serves very  high  piaise.  The  Appleton  press  has  never  done  finer  work.  ...  1  he 
portrait  ot  the  Mohammedan  sheik  is  one  of  the  finest  illustrations  in  recent  books  of 
travel.  But  the  whole  volume  is  a  picture  gallery  which  will  especially  commend  itself 
to  the  large  family  of  globe  trotters,  among  whom  Mr.  Thompson  deserves  good 
standing  for  his  sensible  comments  and  his  excellent  taste." — Literary  World. 

pOEMS  OF  NATURE.  By  WILLIAM  CULLEN 
•*  BRYANT.  Profusely  illustrated  by  Paul  de  Longpre".  8vo. 
Cloth,  gilt,  $4.00. 

"  A  very  rich  volume  embellished  with  exquisite  designs.  .  .  .  The  publishers  have 
been  at  great  pains  to  make  this  volume  what  it  is — one  of  the  handsomest  of  the 
year." — Philadelphia  Press. 

"The  poems  included  in  the  collection  are  some  of  the  choicest  of  Bryant's  inspi- 
rations, the  illustrations  are  lovely  and  sympathetic,  and  the  entiie  make-up  of  the  vol- 
ume is  eminently  artistic.'' — Philadelphia  Telegraph. 

"  There  has  probably  been  no  more  beautiful,  and  certainly  no  more  filling,  presenta- 
tion of  Kryant's  selected  woik  than  is  offered  in  this  volume.  .  .  .  Kach  poem  is  ac- 
companied by  special  designs  arranged  with  picturesque  irregularity,  and  the  volume 
is  admirably  printed.  An  excellent  effect  is  secured  by  the  use  of  a  little  lighter  ink 
for  the  text."—  The  Outlook. 

"  The  artist  is  primarily  a  painter  of  flowers,  and  under  his  faithful  and  very  pretty 
reproductions  of  these  the  poems  arc  delicately  wreathed." — AVit*  York  Times. 

"The  poetry  of  Willia'ii  Cullen  Bryant  is  distinguished  beyond  that  of  any  other 
American  poet  by  the  fidelity  with  which  Nature  is  depicted  therein.  .  .  .  No  one  has 
ca'ight  the  picturesque  spirit  of  his  text  so  successfully  HS  Paul  de  I.ongpti  in  these 
jottni  of  Nature."— RICHARD  HENRY  STODDARD,  in  thf  Hook  liiiyer. 

'  In  beauty  of  print  and  binding  and  in  its  artistic  illustrations  the  book  is  among 
the  bent  specimens  of  the  printer's  art.  The  illustration*  by  Paul  de  I.ongpre  tell  the 
story  of  green  fields  and  woods  and  mountain*  and  singing  birds  without  the  .ml  cf 
words.  The  book  a  artistically  beautiful  upon  every  page."— Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

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D.  APPLETON   AND  COMPANY'S   PUBLICATIONS. 

(^AMP-FIRES  OF  A  NATURALIST,  From  the 
*•*'  Field  Notes  of  LEWIS  LINDSAY  DYCHE,  A.  M.,  M.  S.,  Professor 
of  Zoology  and  Curator  of  Birds  and  Mammals  in  the  Kansas 
State  University.  The  Story  of  Fourteen  Expeditions  after 
North  American  Mammals.  By  CLARENCE  E.  EDWORDS. 
With  numerous  Illustrations.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.50. 

"  It  is  not  always  that  aJJ>rofessor  of  zoology  is  so  enthusiastic  a  sportsman  as  Prof. 
Dyche.  His  hunting  exploits  are  as  varied  as  those  of  Gordon  dimming,  for  example, 
in  South  Africa.  His  grizzly  bear  is  as  dangerous  as  the  lion,  and  his  mountain  st  cep 
and  goats  more  difficult  to  stalk  and  shoot  than  any  creatures  of  the  torrid  zone.  Evi- 
dently he  came  by  his  tastes  as  a  hunter  from  lifelong  experience."—  New  York 
Tribune. 

"The  book  has  no  dull  pages,  and  is  often  excitingly  interesting,  and  fully  in- 
structive as  to  the  habits,  haunts,  and  nature  of  wild  beasts." — Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

"There  is  abundance  of  interesting  incident  in  addition  to  the  scientific  element, 
and  the  illustrations  are  numerous  and  highly  graphic  as  to  the  big  game  met  by  the 
hunters,  and  the  hardships  cheerfully  undertaken. " — Brooklyn  Eagle. 

"The  narrative  is  simple  and  manly_and  full  of  the  freedom  of  forests.  .  .  .  This 
record  of  his  work  ought  to  awaken  the  interest  of  the  generations  growing  up,  if  only 
by  the  contrast  of  his  active  experience  of  the  resources  of  Nature  and  of  savage  life 
with  the  background  of  culture  and  the  environment  of  educational  advantages  that 
are  being  rapidly  formed  for  the  students  of  the  United  States.  Frof.  Dyche  seems, 
fr  >m  this  account  of  him,  to  have  thought  no  personal  hardship  or  exertion  wasted  in 
his  attempt  to  collect  facts,  that  the  naturalist  of  the  future  iray  be  provided  with  com- 
plete and  verified  ideas  as  to  species  which  will  scon  be  extinct  This  is  good  work — 
work  that  we  need  and  that  posterity  will  recognize  with  gratitude.  The  illustrations 
of  the  book  are  interesting,  and  the  type  is  clear." — New  York  Times. 

"The  adventures  are  simply  told,  but  some  of  them  are  thrilling  of  necessity,  how- 
ever modestly  the  narrator  does  his  work.  Prof.  Dyche  has  had  about  as  many  ex- 
periences in  the  way  of  hunting  for  science  as  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  most  fortunate,  and 
this  recountal  of  them  is  most  interesting.  The  camps  from  which  he  worked  ranged 
from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  Arizona,  and  northwest  to  British  Columbia,  and  in 
every  region  he  was  successful  in  securing  rare  specimens  for  his  museum." — Chicago 
Times. 

"  The  literary  construction  is  refreshing.  The  reader  is  carried  into  the  midst  of 
the  very  scenes  of  which  the  author  trlls,  not  by  elaborateness  of  description,  but  by 
the  directness  and  vivi  Jness  of  every  sentence.  He  is  given  no  opportunity  to  abandon 
the  companions  with  which  the  book  h;>s  provided  him,  for  incident  is  made  to  follow 
incident  with  no  intervening  literary  padding.  In  fact,  the  book  is  all  action." — Kan- 
sas City  Journal. 

"  As  an  outdoor  book  of  camping  and  hunting  this  book  possesses  a  timely  interest, 
but  it  also  has  the  merit  of  scientific  exactness  in  the  descriptions  of  the  habits,  pecul- 
iarities, and  haunts  of  wild  animals." — Philadelphia  Press. 

"  But  what  is  most  important  of  all  in  a  narrative  of  this  kind— for  it  seems  to  us 
that  'Camp-Fires  of  a  Naturalist'  was  written  first  of  all  for  entertainment — these  notes 
neither  have  been  '  dressed  up '  and  their  accuracy  thereby  impaired,  nor  yet  retailed  in 
a  dry  and  statistical  manner.  The  book,  in  a  word,  is  a  plain  narrative  of  adventure? 
among  the  larger  American  animals." — Philadelphia  Bulletin.  ' 

"We  recommend  it  most  heartily  to  old  and  young  alike,  and  suggest  it  as  a  beau- 
tiful souvenir  volume  for  those  who  have  seen  the  wonderful  display  of  mounted  animals    , 
at  the  World's  Fair."—  Topeka  Capital. 

D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY.  NEW  YORK. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  LOS  ANGELES 

THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

APR  2  9  1950 


15m -10, '44  (2491) 


3495 

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Practical  agri- 
culture . 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A    001  107  532    2 


S495 
J23P 


